英语写作手册(文本)

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英语写作手册(文本)ManuscriptForm    Asyouarelearningtowrite,youshouldhaveaclearideaofwhatisgoodmanuscriptform.Youshoulddoeverything-writingthetitle,leavingmargins,indenting,capitalizing,anddividingwords-accordingtogenerallyacceptedrules.Wheneveryouwritesomething,workcarefully,writeneatlyandclearly,andtrytomakeasfewmistakesaspossible.Beforehandinginyouressayorexercise,proofreaditonceortwice,becauseyoumayneedtomakesomefinalcorrectionsandchanges.Ifyoualwaysworkinthisway,youaresuretomakeprogress.Ⅰ.Arrangement    Eitherlinedexercisebooksorregularofficepaper(size19×27centimetres)maybeused.Tomakeyourhandwritingeasytoreadandprovideroomforcorrections,youhadbetterwriteoneveryotherline,andwriteononlyonesideofthepaperifitisthin.    Leaveamarginoneachsideofthepaper-abouttwocentimetresatthetopandacentimetreandahalfattheleft,therightandthebottom.Inanexercisebookthetopandbottommarginsarealreadythere,soyouneedonlytodrawaverticallinetomarktheleftmargin.    Youcannotmaketherightmarginverystraight,butyoumustnotwritetotheedgeofthepaper.Whenthereisnotenoughspaceleftforaword,writeitonthenextlineifitcannotbedivided.Inotherwords,theremustbesomeblankspaceontherightsideofthepaper.    Writethetitleinthemiddleofthefirstline.Capitalizethefirstandlastwordsofthetitleandallotherwords(includingwordsfollowinghyphensincompoundwords)exceptarticles,coordinatingconjunctions(and,or,but,nor,for),shortprepositions,andthetoininfinitives:    MyFirstVisittothePalaceMuseum    ThePeopleWithoutaCountry    RulestoAbideBy    DickensandDavidCopperfield    WhatCantheArtistDointheWorldofToday?    WhatReformMeanstoChina    TheMythofa"NegroLiterature"    TheEnglish-SpeakingPeopleinQuebec    Noperiodisusedattheendofatitle.Useaquestionmarkifthetitleisadirectquestion,butdonotuseoneifitisanindirectquestion.Usequotationmarkswithquotesortitlesofarticles;andunderlinenamesofbooks.    Indentthefirstlineofeveryparagraph,leavingaspaceofaboutfourorfiveletters.    ForpaginguseArabicnumeralswithoutparenthesesorperiodsintheupper

1right-handcornerofallpages.Thefirstpageneednotbemarked.    Donotbeginalinewithacomma,aperiod,asemicolon,acolon,aquestionmarkoranexclamationmark.Donotendalinewiththefirsthalfofapairofbrackets,quotationmarks,orparentheses.Thehyphenthatindicatesadividedwordisputattheend,notatthebeginning,ofaline.Ⅱ.WordDivision    Whenyouwriteneartheedgeofthepaper,takealookatthespaceleft.Ifitisnotenoughforthewordyouaregoingtowrite,youhavetodecidewhethertodividethewordortowriteitonthenextline.Neversqueezeawordintothemargin.    Thegeneralprincipleistodivideawordaccordingtoitssyllables.Payattentiontothefollowing:    One-syllablewordslikethrough,march,brainandpushedcannotbedivided.    Donotwriteoneletterofawordattheendoratthebeginningofaline,evenifthatonelettermakesupasyllable,suchasa.lone,trick.y.    Donotputatwo-lettersyllableatthebeginningofaline,likehat.ed,cab.in.    Avoidseparatingpropernamesofpeopleorplaces,likeChi.na,Aus.ten.    Dividehyphenatedwordsonlyatthehyphen:father-in-law,empty-handed.Donotdividewordsinawaythatmaymisleadthereader:pea.cock,re.ally.    Donotdividethelastwordonapage.Instead,writethewholewordonthenextpage.Dividewordswithprefixesorsuffixesbetweentheprefixorsuffixandthebasepartoftheword:re.state.ment,un.relent.ing.Dividetwo-syllablewordswithdoubleconsonantsbetweenthetwoconsonants:strug.gle,shat.ter.Dividingwordsisnotalwayseasy.Whenindoubt,consultadictionary(seePartTwo,Ⅵ).Ⅲ.CapitalizationCapitalsareusedmainlyatthreeplaces:thefirstwordsofsentences,keywordsintitles,andpropernames.Notonlyacompletesentence,butasentencefragmenttreatedasasentence,shouldbeginwithacapitalletter.Thefirstwordofquotedspeech(wordsputbetweenquotationmarks)iscapitalized.Ifaquotedsentenceisbrokenintotwopartsandputintwopairsofquotationmarks,thesecondpartdoesnotbeginwithacapitalletterunlessthefirstwordisapropernounoranadjectivederivedfromapropernoun:Hesaid,"MytriptoMountTaiwasinterestingbuttiring.""MytriptoMountTai,"hesaid,"wasinterestingbuttiring."Iasked,"Whendoyouusuallygohome?"Sheanswered,"Atweekends."

2Commonnounsthatarepartsofpropernamesarecapitalized:CommonNounsafamousuniversityabroadstreet　　alargelake　　thepresidentofthe　　university　　middle,age　　labour,daypeople,republicProperNames　　PekingUniversity　　ChanganStreet　　LakeEriePresidentBrown　　theMiddleAges　　LabourDay　　thePeople'sRepublicof　　ChinaWordsderivedfrompropernamesareusuallycapitalized:MarxistDarwinism　　HegelianConfucianLatinizeVietnamizeButpropernamesortheirderivativesmaybecomecommonnouns,verbsoradjectives:mackintosh(afterCharlesMacintosh,aScottishchemist)chauvinistic(derivedfromNicolas　Chauvin,adevotedadherentofNapoleon)　　quixotic(afterDonQuixote,heroofthenovelofthesamename)anglicize(fromtheLatinwordAnglicus,meaningEnglish)Ⅳ.PunctuationHowtousedifferentpunctuationmarkswillbediscussedindetailinPartTen.Thefollowingareafewbasicruleswhichallstudentslearningtowriteshouldremember:Useaperiod(fullstop)attheendofacompletesentence,howevershortitis.Donotuseacommatojointwocoordinateclauses;useacommaandaconjunction,orasemicolon.Makeyourcommasdifferentfromyourperiods.Acommahasalittletail(,);aperiod

3isadot(.),notatinycircle(。),whichisusedinwrittenChinese.Useaquestionmarkattheendofadirectquestion;donotuseoneattheendofanindirectquestion:"Haveyoudoneyourexercises?"theteacherasked.Theteacheraskedwhetherwehaddoneourexercises.Usetheexclamationmarkonlyafteranemphaticinterjectionorwordsthatexpressverystrongemotion.Donotoveruseit.Putdirectspeechbetweenquotationmarks.Thesubjectandverbthatintroduceaquotationmaybeputbefore,after,orinthemiddleofthequotation:Shesaid,"Wehavedecidedtotaketheexamination.""Wehavedecidedtotaketheexamination,"shesaid."Wehavedecided,"shesaid,"totaketheexamination."Payattentiontothewaythethreesentencesarepunctuated.Inthefirstsentence"Shesaid"isfollowedbyacomma;inthesecond,thequotationcloseswithacommaand"she"isinsmallletters;inthethird,"decided"and"shesaid"arefollowedbycommas,andthesecondhalfofthequotationbeginswithasmallletter.Inshort,thequotationand"shesaid"aretreatedasonesentence;onlythefirstwordofthequotationhastobecapitalized.V.HandwritingWritecarefullysothatyourhandwritingcanbereadeasily.Besuretomakeyourcapitalsalittlebiggerandhigherthanyoursmallletters,makeyoura'sdifferentfromyouro's,andyourn'sdifferentfromyouru's,dotyouri'sandj's,andcrossyourt's.Leavealittlespace(aboutoneletter)afteracommaandaslightlybiggerspace(abouttwoletters)afteraperiod.Whenyouwanttocrossoutaword,donotusebracketstoencloseit,butdrawathicklineacrossit.Whenyouwanttoaddaword,writeitabove,notbelow,thelineofwordsyouhavewrittenwithaclearsignshowingwhereitistobeinserted.Therearetwocommonwaysofwritingtheletters:oneistoformloopsandtheotheristoprint(towritewithoutjoiningtheletters).Botharegood,butyouhadbettersticktooneofthetwostyles.Ⅰ.Thinkoffivetitlesandwritethemintheproperform.Ⅱ.Dividethefollowingwordsaccordingtogeneralrules:alivesettingsister-in-lawhandycorrectnessgratitudebonuspermissionsociablethoughtdictatorshipfar-reaching

4Ⅲ.Punctuatethefollowingpassageandusecapitalswherenecessary:weenteredtheroomjanelookedaroundandaskedwhereisthecatshemusthaverunawayIansweredshedoesn'tliketostayathomewemustgoandfindherjanesaidlet'sgoatthismomentthecatwalkedoutfromunderthechairⅣ.Copytwoorthreeparagraphsfromabook;trytowriteneatlyandpayattentiontohandwritingandmanuscriptform.PartTwoDictionDictionisthechoiceanduseofwords.TheEnglishlanguagehasaverylargevocabulary:asmanyas400,000wordsarecollectedintheOxfordEnglishDictionary.Ofcoursenooneknowsorneedtousesomanywords.Onlyasmallpartofthemareusedbyordinarypeopleforordinarypurposes.Astudentlearningtowriteshouldlearntousethewordsthataremostusefulandmostoftenusedtoexpresshimself.Sometimeshemayusethewrongwords,butmoreoftenthewordsheusesarenotentirelywrong,butinappropriate,inexact,unidiomaticoruninteresting.Abasicknowledgeofdictionmaybeofhelptohim.Ⅰ.LevelsofWordsThewordsthatareoftenusedmaybedivided,fromastylisticpointofview,intothreetypes:formal,common,andcolloquial.Formalwordsmayalsobecalledlearnedwords,orliterarywords,or"big"words.Theymainlyappearinformalwriting,suchasscholarlyortheoreticalworks,politicalandlegaldocuments,andformallecturesandaddresses.Manysuchwordscontainthreeormorethanthreesyllables;mostofthemareofGreekorLatinorigin.Theyareseldomusedindailyconversation,exceptforspecialpurposes.HereisaparagraphfromascholarlypaperwhichcontainssomeofthefeaturesofformalEnglish:    Thereisnothingnewintherecognition,withinagivenlanguage,ofadistinctionbetweencommonusuageandusesofthelanguageformorerestrictedpurposesandoftenenough,perhapscharacteristically,moreelevatedpurposes.ThemonolithicnatureofEnglishisnotquestionedwhenliteraryessayistslikeEmersoncontrastpoetryandcommonspeech.ThelatterisrecognizedinAmericatobethepropersubjectfortheinvestigationoflinguistswho,however,nowshowsomeincipientinclinationtoinvestigatepoetry,too,andothernoncasualutterancesinagivenlanguage.-C.F.Voegelin

5Thereareonlythreesentencesinthisparagraph;allofthemarelongandinvolved.Andthereareinitquiteafewformalorlearnedwords,suchasrecognition,characteristically,elevated,monolithic,investigation,incipient,inclination,noncasual,andutterances.Longsentencesandformalwordsareappropriateherebecausethepaper,whichdiscussesarathercomplexquestion,needsthemtobetheoreticallyclearandexact.Mostofthewordsintheparagraph,however,arethosethatpeopleuseeveryday,andappearinallkindsofwriting.Becauseofthis,theyarecalledcommonwords.Readthefollowingparagraph:    WhenIwasakid,andreadingeverysciencefictionbookinthelocallibrary,Iusedtowonderexactlyhowthefuturewouldhappen.BythatIdon'tmeanwhatthefuturewouldbelike-sciencefictionalreadytoldmethat-butratherhowwe'dactuallygetthere.Sciencefictionbooksseemedtoagree,forexample,thatinthefuturetherewouldbenomoney-alltransactionswouldbemadeviaidentitycardsandcentralizedcomputers.Butthatseemeddubioustome:how,Iwondered,areyougoingtogeteverybodytogiveupmoneyinthefirstplace?-MichaelRogersInthisparagraph,exceptoneortwowordsthatareverycolloquial,likekid,andoneortwothatarealittleformal,liketransactionsanddubious,allthewordsarecommonlyusedwords.Thesentencesaremuchshorterandsimplerthanthoseintheprecedingparagraph.Suchvocabularyandsentencestructurefitthecontentoftheparagraph,asitdescribesthethoughtsofachild.Therearewordswhicharemainlyusedininformalorfamiliarconversation.Theyseldomappearinformalwriting,andinliteraryworkstheirmainuseistorecordpeople'sthoughtsanddialogues.TheyareusuallyshortwordsofoneortwosyllablesandmostofthemareofSaxonorigin(i.e.,notborrowedfromGreek,Latin,orFrench).Wemaycallthemcolloquialwords,suchasguts(meaningcourage),guy(man),andhassle(bother).Hereisaparagraphwithsomeofthesewords:    Youhaveyourtension.Sometimesyoucomeclosetohavinganaccident,thatupsetsyou.Youjustescapemaybebyahairorso.Sometimesmaybeyougetadisgruntledpassengeronthere,andstartsabigargument.Traffic.Youhavesomeonewhocutsyouofforstopsinfrontofthebus.There'salotoftensionbehindthat.Yougottowatchallthetime.You'rewatchin'thedrivers,you'rewatchin'othercars.Mostofthetimeyouhavetodrivefortheotherdrivers,toavoidhittingthem.Soyoutakethetensionhomewithyou.-StudsTerkelThisispartofatalkgivenbyaChicagodriver.Heusesverycolloquialwordsandexpressionslikethere's,you're,byahairorso,onthere,cutsyouoff,andyougotto.

6Butmostofthewordsheusesarecommonwords.Thustherearethreelevelsofwords,withtheformalorlearnedatthetop,thecolloquialatthebottom,andthecommoninthemiddle.Commonwordsaregoodforallkindsofwriting;formalwordsareasaruleseldomusedininformalwriting,whilecolloquialwordsareseldomusedinformalwriting,unlessforsomespecialpurposeoreffect.TheseareallwordsofstandardEnglish,whichisusedbyalleducatedspeakersofthelanguage.Therearewordswhichareusedonlybyspecialgroupsofpeopleforspecialeffect.Amongtheseareslangwords,dialectalwordsandcertainwordsthatareoftenusedbyuneducatedspeakers.Slangwordsarehighlyinformal;theymaybevividandinteresting,buttheymay,whenusedinappropriately,makethewriterorspeakersoundoffensiveorfunny:    Onhearingthathisfatherhadkickedthebucket,wewrotehimalettertoexpressoursympathies.    Thebigbanquetheldinhonourofthedistinguishedguestswasreallyneat.Becauseoftheslangexpressions,thefirstsentencedoesnotreallysoundsympathetic,andthesecondoneisnotseriousintone.Inthefollowingpassageafarmersaidsomeangrywordsabouttheschoolteacherwhohadtakenhispupilsoutonafieldtrip:I'llattendtothatmyselfinth'mornin'.I'lltakekeero''im.Heain'tfromthiscountynohow.I'llgodownthereinth'mornin'andsee'im.Lettin'youleaveyourbooksandgallivantalloverth'hills.Whatkindofaschoolisitnohow!Didn'tdothat,myson,whenI'salittleshaverinschool.-JesseStuartThefarmer'sdialectisshowninhispronunciation:heomitscertainsoundsandpronounces-inglike-inandcarelikekeer.Heusesain'tforisn't,I'sforI'm,andnohowforanyhow.Thesewords,whichmaybeusedbyuneducatedspeakers,arenotofstandardvocabulary.Alittleshaverisaslangexpressionmeaningalittleboy.Suchnonstandard(orsubstandard)wordsandexpressionsareoftenseeninstoriesdescribingpoorlyeducatedpeople.ForeignstudentsofEnglishneedtounderstandthem,butshouldnottrytousetheminspeechorwriting.Ⅱ.TheMeaningofWordsThemeaningofawordhastwoaspects:denotativeandconnotative.Aword'sdenotationiswhatitliterallymeans,asdefinedbythedictionary;itsconnotationisthefeelingorideasuggestedbyit.Forinstance,country,nation,stateandlandhavemoreorlessthesamedenotationandmayallbetranslatedintoguojiainChinese,buttheirconnotationsarequitedifferent.Countryreferstoanareaoflandanditspopulationandgovernment,nation

7emphasizesthepeopleofacountry,statereferstothegovernmentorpoliticalorganizationofacountry,andlandislessprecisebutmoreliteraryandemotivethancountry.anislandcountry;neighbouringcountriesInareaChinaisthethirdlargestcountryintheworld.apeace-lovingnation;theawakeningnationsofAfricaThemodernizationprogrammehaswonthesupportofthewholenation.stateorgans;state-ownedenterprisesChinaismynativelandAscomparedhere,thesefourwordsmaybesaidtobesynonyms.Englishisparticularlyrichinsynonymsasaresultofincorporatingwordsfromotherlanguagesoverthecenturies.Butweshouldrememberthatitisdifficulttofindtwowordsthatareexactlythesameinmeaninganduse.Theymaybedifferentinstylisticlevel,inthedegreeofemphasis,inemotionalcoloring,intone,andincollocation.Generallyspeaking,wordsofAnglo-SaxonoriginaremoreinformalthanthoseofLatinorFrenchorigin.Lookatthesewords:asktimerisequestionagemountinterrogateepochascendIneachgroupthefirstwordisfromAnglo-SaxonandthesecondandthirdfromFrenchorLatin.Thefirstoneisclearlymoreinformalorcolloquialthantheothertwo.Bigandlargearebothcommonlyusedwords,butlargeisslightlymoreformalandmaybeusedtodescribethingsthatareunusuallybig,soitismoreemphaticthanbig.Huge,whichismoreliterarythanthesetwowords,meansextremelylarge,andismoreemphaticthanlarge.abig/largecity;abig/largehouseWuhanisaverylargecityinCentralChina.Theteamhasgotahugemanovertwometrestall.Smallandlittleareofteninterchangeable,butthereissomedifferenceinemotionalcoloringbetweenthem.Smallisobjective,whilelittlemayimplyafeelingoffondness:Theylivedinasmalltown.IcanneverforgetthelittletownwhereIspentmyhappychildhood.Modestandhumblebothindicatealackofpride,butmodestyisavirtueandhumblenessisnot.Humbleoftenconnotesundueself-depreciation.Sotheyaredifferentintone:oneislaudatoryandtheotherisderogatory.

8Modestandhardworking,hemadeveryquickprogressatschool.ClearlyGomperswasoverawedbyWilson.Hisfacetookonaservilelook;hisvoicewashumble.Somesynonymshavedifferentcollocations:theyarehabituallyusedwithcertainwords.Large,notbig,forinstance,isusedtomodifynounslikeamount,numberandquantity(alargeamountofmoney,alargenumberofpeople,alargequantityofbeer,etc.).Similarly,withnounsdenotingpersonalqualities,suchascourage,confidence,ability,andwisdom,notbigorlarge,butgreat,iscommonlyused.Allthisshowsthattodiscriminatebetweensynonymsisimportanttoastudentlearningtowrite.Whenindifficulty,heshoulduseagooddictionarywithnotesonusageorsynonyms.Hereisanexampleofsuchnotes:SYN.-proudisthebroadestterminthiscomparison,ranginginimplicationfromproperself-esteemorpridetoanoverweeningopinionofone'simportance[tooproudtobeg,proudasapeacock];arrogantimpliesanaggressive,unwarrantedassertionofsuperiorimportanceorprivileges[thearrogantcolonel];haughtyimpliessuchconsciousnessofhighstation,rank,etc.asisdisplayedinscornofthoseoneconsidersbeneathone[ahaughtydowager];insolent,inthisconnection,impliesbothhaughtinessandgreatcontempt,esp.asmanifestedinbehaviororspeechthatinsultsoraffrontsothers[shehasaninsolentdisregardforherservant'sfeelings]...-Webster'sNewWorldDictionaryThereisonethingaboutthemeaningofwordsthatChinesestudentsshouldbeonguardagainst:takingtheChineseequivalentofanEnglishwordasitsexactmeaning,orunderstandingthemeaningofanEnglishwordfromitsChineseequivalent.ItistruethattheChineseequivalentsofmanyEnglishwordsexpresstheirtruemeanings,butveryoftenanEnglishwordhasnoexactChineseequivalentandithastobetranslatedindifferentwaysindifferentcontexts.Takeaverysimpleword,send,forinstance.AstudentwhothinksitsmeaningissonginChinesemaymakesentenceslike:"Hecametosendmetheletter"(Hebroughtmetheletter);or"Isentmyfriendtothestationyesterday"(Iwenttothestationwithmyfriendtoseehimoff).Infact,tosendmeanstocausetogoorbetakentoaplacewithoutgoingoneself.Ifyousentsomethingtoaplace,youaskedsomeoneelsetotakeitthere;youdidnotgothereyourself.TounderstandthemeaningofanEnglishwordonehadbetterfindouthowitisdefinedinEnglishinadictionarywithEnglishexplanations.Chinesetranslationsarenotalwaysreliable,andsometimestheyaremisleading.EnglishwordsthatmaybetranslatedintothesameChineseexpressionarenotnecessarilysynonymous.Familyandhome,forinstance,maybothbetranslatedasjia,buttheyarenotsynonyms.Familyreferstothepeoplerelatedtoone,whilehometotheplacewhereonelives.Exceptandbesidesaresometimestranslatedinthesameway(chule),buttheyareoppositeinmeaning:exceptmeansleavingoutornotincluding,andbesidesmeansinadditiontooraswellas.

9Ⅲ.GeneralandSpecificWordsComparativelyspeaking,somewordsaremoregeneralormorespecificinmeaningthanothers.Professionals,forinstance,ismoregeneralthanscientists,doctors,teachers,lawyers,journalists,etc.,allofwhicharemorespecific.Butscientistsmaybecalledageneralwordwhencomparedwithphysicistsorchemists,which,inturn,ismoregeneralthanbiochemists.Althoughbothgeneralandspecificwordsareuseful,astudentlearningtowriteshouldmakeanefforttomasterandusespecificwordswhereverpossible.Specificwordshelptomakewritingclear,exact,vivid,andstriking,fortheyaremoreinformativeandexpressivethangeneralwords.Compare:agoodmankind,honest,just,generous,sympathetic,warm-hearted,selfless,brave,honorablegoodfoodtasty,delicious,nourishing,rich,wholesome,fresh,appetizing,abundanthousemansion,villa,chateau,cottage,bungalow,cabin,hut,shack,shanty,shed,barnlaughsmile,grin,beam,giggle,titter,snigger,chuckle,guffaw,chortleItiseasytoseethatthespecificwordsontherightaremuchmoreconcreteandcolorfulthanthegeneralonesontheleft;theyseemtomakethereadersee,hear,orfeelwhatthewriterwishestodescribe.Usingspecificwordsshouldgoalongwithprovidingdetails,andthentherewillbeeffectiveandimpressivewriting.Studythefollowingexamples:GeneralItisoftenwindyanddustyhereinspring.SpecificInspringthereisoftenaverystrongnorthwestwind.Itcarriessomuchfinedustwithitthatsometimesthesunbecomesobscure.Thereisnoescapefromthefinedust;itgetsintoyoureyes,yourears,yournostrils,andyourhair.Itgoesthroughthecracksofclosedwindowsandcoversyourdesksandchairs.GeneralStudentsdomanyinterestingthingsafterclasses.SpecificEverymorningandafternoonthesportsfieldsarealivewithenergeticstudents.Footballandbasketballmatches,volleyball,andbadminton,track-trainingandgymnasticsareallinfullswing.Eventhealleywaysunderthetreesandaroundtheflowerbedsprovideenoughspaceforenthusiaststopractise.Throughthewindowscomesthepitter-patterofping-pongballs,thesoundofsongsandmusic,or

10laughteranddiscussion.GeneralAnoldNegrowomanwaswalkinginthewoods.SpecificFaroutinthecountrytherewasanoldNegrowomanwithherheadtiedinaredrag,comingalongapaththroughthepinewoods.Shewasveryoldandsmallandshewalkedslowlyinthedarkpineshadows,movingalittlefromsidetosideinhersteps,withthebalancedheavinessandlightnessofapenduluminagrandfatherclock.Shecarriedathin,smallcanemadefromanumbrella,andwiththisshekepttappingthefrozenearthinfrontofher.Thismadeagraveandpersistentnoiseinthestillair,thatseemedmeditativelikethechirpingofasolitarylittlebird.-EudoraWeltyGeneralNotfarfromtherailwaytherewasacottagewithagardenandtreesandflowersaroundit.SpecificOntheoutskirtsofalittletownuponariseoflandthatsweptbackfromtherailwaytherewasatidylittlecottageofwhiteboards,trimmedvividlywithgreenblinds.Toonesideofthehousetherewasagardenneatlypatternedwithplotsofgrowingvegetables,andanarborforthegrapeswhichripenedlateinAugust.Beforethehousetherewerethreemightyoakswhichsheltereditintheircleanandmassiveshadeinsummer,andtotheothersidetherewasaborderofgayflowers.Thewholeplacehadanairoftidiness,thrift,andmodestcomfort.-ThomasWolfeⅣ.IdiomsAnidiomisafixedgroupofwordswithaspecialmeaningwhichisdifferentfromthemeaningsofthewordsthatformit.To"readabook",forinstance,isnotanidiom,forthemeaningofthephraseisthemeaningsofthethreewordsputtogether,and"abook"canbereplacedbyotherwordslike"anewspaper"or"anovel".To"readbetweenthelines"isdifferent.Thefourwordsthatformthephrasegivenohintastowhatitmeansandnoneofthewordscanbechangedtoformanotherunderstandablephrase.Englishisrichinidioms.Thefollowingtypesofidiomsaremostcommon:PhrasalverbsputupwithturnoutlookforwardtocarryoncomeacrossN.+prep.+n.

11astrawinthewindtheappleofone'seyelikeafishoutofwaterinaworldofone'sownPrep.+n.inkindontheairatlengthwithflyingcolorsV.+n.won'tholdwaterslipone'smindkilltwobirdswithonestonegotothedogsAs...asaseasyaspieasbigaslifeasdifferentasnightanddayaspoorasachurchmousePairsofwordswearandtearhighanddrytouchandgoinblackandwhiteSayingsOneman'smeatisanotherman'spoison.Astitchintimesavesnine.Takeitorleaveit.Don'tcountyourchickensbeforetheyarehatched.    Idiomsarefrequentlyusedinspeechandwriting.Theyhelptomakeone'slanguagesoundnaturalandidiomatic.ButinusingthemforeignlearnersofEnglishshouldrememberthefollowingtwopoints:(1)mostidiomsareinformalorcolloquialinstyleandcanbeusedinconversation;butafewareslangandshouldbeusedwithcare,suchasallballedup,meaningtroubledorconfused,andtocoughup,meaningto

12producesomething;(2)manyidiomshavebecomeclichésandarenolongerfreshorinteresting,suchasarmedtotheteethandasgoodasgold,andshouldbeusedsparingly.Ⅴ.FiguresofSpeechWordsusedintheiroriginalmeaningsareusedliterally,whilewordsusedinextendedmeaningsforthepurposeofmakingcomparisonsorcallinguppicturesinthereader'sorlistensr'smindareusedfiguratively.In"acolorfulgarden"thewordcolorfulisusedinitsliteralsense,butin"acolorfullife"and"acolorfulcareer"thewordisusedinitsfigurativesense.Neitherlifenorcareerhasanycolor;colorfulherehasanewextendedorfigurativemeaning:exciting,interesting,andrichinvariety.Thewordsuggestsacomparisonbetweenlifeorcareerandsomethingthathasdifferentcolors,likeagarden,andbecauseofthisassociationthewordismoreimpressivethanawordusedinitsliteralsense,suchasinterestingandexciting.Therearevariouswaysofusingwordsfiguratively.Theyarecalledfiguresofspeech.Amongthemostcommonofthemare:1.SimileItisacomparisonbetweentwodistinctlydifferentthingsandthecomparisonisindicatedbythewordasorlike:Omylove'slikeared,redrose.-RobertBurnsThatmancan'tbetrusted.He'sasslipperyasaneel.Theoldman'shairisaswhiteassnow.Intheabovethreeexamplespeopleandthingsofdifferentcategoriesarecompared:awomanandarose,amanandaneel,andhairandsnow.Buteachpairhaveonesimilarity:loveliness,slipperinessandwhiteness.Thediscrepancybetweenthetwothingscomparedmakestheirsimilarityallthemorestriking.2.MetaphorItistheuseofawordwhichoriginallydenotesonethingtorefertoanotherwithasimilarquality.Itisalsoacomparison,butthecomparisonisimplied,notexpressedwiththewordasorlike.IfRobertBurnshadwritten"Omylove'sared,redrose"withthewordlikeomitted,hewouldhaveusedametaphorinsteadofasimile.Inthechangedline,"mylove"isalsocomparedtoaredrose,butthereisnowordtoindicatethecomparison;henceroseisametaphor.Similarly,insentenceslike"Heisthesouloftheteam"and"Irrigationisthelifebloodofagriculture",soulandlifebloodareusedmetaphorically.Metaphorsareusednotonlyafterverbtobe,andnotonlynounscanbeusedmetaphorically.Studythefollowingexamples:Thepictureofthosepoorpeople'sliveswascarvedsosharplyinhisheartthathecouldneverforget

13it.Therewasamedievalmagnificenceaboutthebigdining-hall.Thestreetfadedintoacountryroadwithstragglinghousesbyit.Therewereafewlordlypoplarsbeforethehouse.Allhisformerjoywasdrownedintheembarrassmentandconfusionhewasfeelingatthemoment.Heoftenprefacedhisremarksby"Ican'thelpthinking..."Thecharcoalfireglowedanddimmedrhythmicallytothestrokesofthebellows.Asisshowninthesesentences,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbscanallbeusedinametaphoricalway.Thereisalwaysacomparisonimplied.Takesentence4,forinstance.Thewordlordlysuggeststhatthepoplarsbeforethehouseweretall,straightandstately,justlikeancientaristocrats.Theverbprefacedinsentence6comparesthatman'swayofbeginningeveryremarkwith"Ican'thelpthinking..."toprovidingaprefacetoabook.Ametaphororasimilehastobefreshtobeeffective.Onethathasbeenfrequentlyusedoveralongperiodoftimewillbecomedullandstale,andceasetofunctionasametaphororsimile."Thelegofatable"musthavebeenametaphorwhenitwasfirstused,buttodaywefeelthatlegisusedinitsliteralsense.3.PersonificationItistotreatathingoranideaasifitwerehumanorhadhumanqualities.Inpoetrypersonificationisverycommon:Youthishotandbold,Ageisweakandcold,Youthiswild,andAgeistame.-WilliamShakespeareIntheselinesYouthandAgearedescribedliketwopersons.Inprosepersonificationisalsoused,thoughnotsooftenasinpoetry.Thematchwillsoonbeoveranddefeatisstaringusintheface.Thistimefatewassmilingtohim.Thunderroaredandapouringrainstarted.Duskcamestealthily.Thestormwasragingandanangryseawascontinuouslytossingtheirboat.4.MetonymyItissubstitutingthenameofonethingforthatofanotherwithwhichitiscloselyassociated.Thusthecrowncanstandforaking,andtheWhiteHousefortheAmericangovernment,thebottleforwineoralcohol,andthebarforthelegalprofession.Whenmetonymyiswellused,brevityandvividnessmaybeachieved:Swordandcrossinhand,theEuropeanconquerorsfellupontheAmericas.Whenthewarwasover,helaiddowntheswordandtookupthepen.Hispursewouldnotallowhimthatluxury.

145.SynecdocheWhenapartissubstitutedforthewholeorthewholeissubstitutedforapart,synecdocheisapplied:Thefarmswereshortofhandsduringtheharvestseason.Hehadtoearnhisdailybreadbydoingoddjobs.GermanybeatArgentina2to1inthisexcitingfootballmatch.Thepoorcreaturecouldnolongerendurehersufferings.Intheabovesentenceshandsstandsformen,breadforfoodorlivingexpenses,thenamesofthetwocountriesforthetwoteams,andcreatureforawoman.Metonymyandsynedochearesimilarasbothinvolvesubstitution.Sometimestheycanhardlybedistinguishedfrommetaphor,whichinawayisalsosubstitution.6.EuphemismItisthesubstitutionofamildorvagueexpressionforaharshorunpleasantone,forexample:todietopassaway,toleaveus;one'shearthasstoppedbeatingoldpeopleseniorcitizensmademotionallydisturbeddustmansanitationworkerlavatorybathroom,men's(women's)roominvasion,raidmilitaryactiondrivinginhabitantsawayorcontrollingthempacificationconcentrationcampsstrategichamletsItisobviousthatthoseeuphemismsusedbytheordinarypeoplearemeanttosoftenharshreality,butthoseusedbypoliticiansmayaimatdeceivingthepublic.7.IronyItistheuseofwordswhichareclearlyoppositetowhatismeant,inordertoachieveaspecialeffect.Supposeyouplannedanoutingonacertainday,expectingittobefine;butwhenthedaycameitwasrainingheavily.Ifyousaid,"Whatfineweatherforanouting!"youwerespeakingironically.Ifabarbarousactwascalledcivilizedorcultural,ironywasused.8.OverstatementandunderstatementInoverstatementthedictionexaggeratesthesubject,andinunderstatementthewordsplaydownthemagnitudeorvalueofthesubject.Overstatementisalsocalled

15hyperbole.Bothaimatthesameeffect:tomakethestatementordescriptionimpressiveorinteresting.Sheisdyingtoknowwhatjobhasbeenassignedher.Onhearingthathehadbeenadmittedtothatfamousuniversity,hewhisperedtohimself,"I'mtheluckiestmanintheworld."Ittookafewdollarstobuildthisindoorswimmingpool."Heisreallystrange,"hisfriendssaidwhentheyheardhehaddivorcedhisprettyandlovingwife.9.TransferredEpithetAnepithetisanadjectiveordescriptivephrasethatservestocharacterizesomebodyorsomething.Atransferredepithetisonethatisshiftedfromthenounitlogicallymodifiestoawordassociatedwiththatnoun.Whenonesaysthathehashadabusyday,oneisusingsuchafigureofspeech.Foritistheperson,nottheday,thatisbusy.Shewassoworriedabouthersonthatshespentseveralsleeplessnights.Inhisquietlazinesshesuddenlyrememberedthatstrangeword.Theassistantkeptarespectfuldistancefromhisbosswhentheywerewalkinginthecorridor.Hesaid"Yes"tothequestioninanunthinkingmoment.Theoldmanputareassuringhandonmyshoulder.10.OxymoronInoxymoronapparentlycontradictorytermsarecombinedtoproduceaspecialeffect.Thecoachhadtobecrueltobekindtohistrainees.Whenthenewsofthefailurecame,allhisfriendssaidthatitwasavictoriousdefeat.Thepresidentwasconspicuouslyabsentonthatoccasion.Shereadthelong-awaitedletterwithatearfulsmile.11.AlliterationItreferstotheappearanceofthesameinitialconsonantsoundintwoormorewords,suchas"proudasapeacock"and"blindasabat".Alliterationisoftenusedinpoetrytogiveemphasistowordsthatarerelatedinmeaning:Whereforefeed,andclothe,andsave,Fromthecradletothegrave,ThoseungratefuldroneswhowouldDrainyoursweat-nay,drinkyourblood?-PercyByssheShelleyAlliterationissometimesusedinproseforthesameeffect-tojointwoormorerelatedwords.

16Iseealsothedull,drilled,docile,brutishmassesoftheHunsoldieryploddingonlikeaswarmofcrawlinglocusts.TheRussiandangeristhereforeourdanger,...justasthecauseofanyRussianfightingforhishearthandhomeisthecauseoffreemenandfreepeoplesineveryquarteroftheglobe.ThesetwosentencesaretakenfromWinstonChurchill'sspeechonHitler'sinvasionoftheSovietUnionin1941.Ⅵ.Dictionaries1.UsingDictionariesAforeignlearnerofEnglishneedstokeepagooddictionaryhandywhenhereadsorwrites.Itwillhelphimagreatdealinlearningandusingwords.Whenindoubtaboutthespelling,division,andpronunciationofaword,heshouldlookitupinadictionary.Ifmorethanonespellingisgiven,hecanchooseeitherone,forbothareingooduse,suchas:judgment,judgement;aging,ageing(thefirstmaybemorepreferable).Itisoftendifficulttodecidewheretodivideawordattheendofaline,anditisnoteasytorememberalltherulesinvolved.Adictionaryshowsthesyllabicationofawordeitherbyleavingaspaceorbyinsertingadotbetweensyllables,likematerialism,in·sep·a·ra·ble.Italsoshowswhetheracompoundwordisgenerallywrittenasoneword,twowords,orwithahyphen,likegaslight,shortsighted,far-sighted,gasmask.ThepronunciationofawordisshowninInternationalPhoneticSymbolsinmanydictionaries.Somedictionarieshavetheirspecialsymbols,thekeytowhichiseitherprintedatthebottomofeachpageorexplainedinthefrontmatter.Ifmorethanonepronunciationisgiven,eachisacceptable.Adictionaryentryshowsthepartorpartsofspeechofaword,thetransitiveorintransitiveuseofaverb,thepasttenseandpastparticipleofanirregularverb,thepluralformofanirregularnoun,andotherformsawordmayhave.Thehistoryofaword-itsetymology-isgiveninsomebiggerdictionaries.Forinstance,theremaybethefollowinginformationaboutautocrat:[Fr.autocrate

17dangerous/'dendзaras/adjabletoorlikelytocausedanger:adangerousdrug/animal/criminal|It'sdangeroustogotooneartheedgeofthecliff.|Thesituationispotentiallyverydangerous.-～lyadv:Hewasdrivingdangerously.|Sheisdangerouslyill.-LongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglishThedefinitionandillustrationsmakethemeaninganduseofdangerousveryclear,andmaypreventonefrommakingasentencelike"Iwasverydangerous"whenonemeanstosay"Iwasingreatdanger".Wordsthatarenotlabelledinadictionaryaresupposedtobelongtothegeneralvocabulary,andthereforetheycanbeusedforordinarypurposes.Therearewordslabellednonstandard,slang,colloquial,obsolete,archaic,dialectal,informal,vulgar,derogatory,etc.Suchwordsshouldbeusedwithcare.Nigger,forinstance,islabelledderogatoryortaboo,becauseitisanoffensiveword;ain'tislabellednonstandard,becausenoeducatedpeopleuseit;hassleasaverbislabelledinfml(informal)andisnotusedonformaloccasions.WherethereisadifferencebetweenBritishandAmericanusage,thedifferenceisusuallymarked.Somedictionariesprovideveryhelpfulusagenotes,suchas:Theprepositionsaboveandovercanoftenbeusedinthesameway:Let'shangthepaintingover/abovethefireplace.Ifthereisanideaofmovement,overisused:Thebirdflewoverthelake.|Thesheepjumpedoverthewall.Overisalsousedifthereisanideaofcovering:Hepulledtheblanketoverhisheadandfellasleep.|Theybuiltaroofoverthecourtyard.-LongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglishSynonymsarealsocomparedanddifferentiatedinsomedictionaries(seeSectionⅡofthispart).Toknowwhatadictionarycontainsandhowitcanbestbeused,oneshouldspendsometimereadingitsfrontmatterorintroductorymaterial,andlookatitstableofcontents.Adictionarymayincludeinitsappendicestablesofweightsandmeasures,irregularverbs,geographicalandbiographicalnames,andotherusefulinformation.2.SomeGoodDictionariesLongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglish(LDOCE),compiledmainlyforforeignlearnersofEnglish,aimstoprovidethemwithinformationonthecorevocabularyofcontemporaryEnglish.Around56,000wordsandphrasesareentered,includingscientificandtechnicalterms,andinformalandidiomaticexpressions.Whatisspeciallyhelpfultoforeignlearnersistheinformationitgivesonthegrammar,collocations,andstylisticandsituationalappropriacyofwords.AllwordsaredefinedinsimpleEnglish,thedefiningvocabularycontainingnomorethan2,000words.Themeaningsandusesofwordsareillustratedinover75,000examplesandover500pictures.Thereare20LanguageNotesdiscussingusesofprepositions,

18phrasalverbs,etc.,andwaysofexpressingthanks,apologies,etc.Thefrontmattercontainsguidestousingthedictionary,andthebackmattercontainseighttables,includingthoseofnumbers,weightsandmeasures,andgeographicalnames.Itsnew1987editionisavailableinChina.OxfordAdvancedLearner'sDictionaryofCurrentEnglish(ALD)isalsoagooddictionaryforforeignlearnersofEnglish.ThewordsandphrasesareexplainedinsimpleEnglish,withplentyofexamplesandpictures.Phrasalverbslikegetabout,getacross,getalongaregivenfullertreatmentthaninmanyotherdictionaries.Onespecialfeatureofthedictionaryistheuseofthe25VerbPatterns,whichhelplearnerstouseverbscorrectly.Theverbsshowandtell,forinstance,canbefollowedbyanindirectobjectandadirectobject,asin"Pleaseshowmetheway"and"Pleasetellmethemeaning",buttheverbsexplainandsuggestcannotbeusedinthisway-theyareusedindifferentpatterns.TheVerbPatterns,ifcarefullystudiedandmemorized,areavaluableguidetostudentslearningtouseEnglishverbs.ThesignsCandUforcountableanduncountablenounsarealsohelpful.The10appendicesatthebackofthedictionary,whichincludecommonabbreviations,numericalexpressions,andbiographicalandgeographicalnames,areveryusefultoforeignstudents.Webster'sNewWorldDictionaryoftheAmericanLanguage(WNWD)islargerinsizeandhasalargervocabularythantheLDOCEandALD(over159,000entriesinits1979edition).InsteadoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetitusesitsownsymbols,akeytowhichappearsatthebottomofeveryalternatepage,andadetailedexplanationofwhichisincludedinGuidetotheUseoftheDictionaryinthefrontmatter.Thesensesofawordarearrangedinsemanticorderfromtheearliesttothemostrecentsensesothatthedevelopmentofthewordisshown.Theetymologyofeachwordisgiveninsquarebracketsaftertheheadwordandphoneticsymbols.Thedictionarycontainsmanyshortparagraphsinwhichsynonymsarelistedanddiscriminatedandexamplesofusagesupplied.Undertheentry-wordboil,forinstance,thereistheabbreviationSYN.,followedbyadiscussionofthemeaninganduseofboil,seethe,simmerandstew.Intheentriesfortheotherthreewords,thereisanote:SYN.seeBOIL.Abbreviations,biographicalandgeographicalnamesareenteredinalphabeticalorderwithordinarywords.IntheappendicesarenamesofcollegesanduniversitiesoftheUnitedStates,aguidetopunctuation,mechanics,andmanuscriptform.CollinsDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage(CDOEL)issimilartoWNWDinsizeandthenumberofentries.Ofthevarioussensesofaword,themostcommononeincurrentusageisplacedfirst;ifacurrentsenseisthe"coremeaning"whichilluminatesthemeaningofothersenses,thecoremeaningisplacedfirst.Technicalsensesfollowgeneralsenses;archaicandobsoletesensesfollowtechnicalsenses;idiomsandfixedphrasesareplacedlast.Thedictionarycontainsalargenumberofscientificandtechnicaltermsandgeographicalandbiographicalentries.Abbreviationsandacronyms,prefixesandsuffixesareallenteredasheadwordsinthemainalphabeticallist.Theetymologyofawordisplacedattheendofanentry.Therearealsobriefusagenotes,suchasthefollowingoneto-wise:

19Usage.Theadditionof-wisetoanounasareplacementforalengthierphrase(suchasasfaras...isconcerned)isconsideredunacceptablebymostcarefulspeakersandwriters:talentwise,he'salittleweak(he'salittleweakasregardstalent);thecompanyisthrivingprofit-wise(asfarasprofitsareconcerned,thecompanyisthriving).DictionariesofidiomsAsidiomsareusefulanddifficult,foreignlearnershadbetterkeepadictionaryofidioms,foritcontainsmoreidiomaticexpressions,clearerexplanationsandmoreillustrativesentencesthancorrespondingentriesinanordinarydictionary.ADictionaryofAmericanIdioms,firstpublishedin1966andrevisedin1975,definesandexplainstheuseofover4,000idioms,includingslang,proverbs,andclichés.NTC'sAmericanIdiomsDictionary,publishedbyNationalTextbookCompanyintheUnitedStates,containsover8,000idiomaticexpressions.ThePhrase-FinderIndexatthebackofthebookhelpsonetofindanyidiomveryquickly.AbilingualeditionwaspublishedinChinain1992.LongmanDictionaryofPhrasalVerbstreatsidiomaticcombinationsofaverbandadverb,oraverbandpreposition,oraverbwithbothadverbandpreposition,suchastakein,setaboutandputupwith.Eachphrasalverbisdefinedandexplainedwithoneortwoexamples.Thereisagrammarcodeforeachentrytoshowhowthephraseisusedinsentences.Dictionariesofcollocations.Collocationmeansthewayinwhichwordsgotogether.InChinesedaisoftenusedtomodifyyu,butinEnglishheavy,notbig,goeswithrain.Similarly,inChinesewesayqudejinbu,butinEnglishwesaymakeprogress.Whenindoubtaboutthecollocationofaword,astudentmayseekguidanceinaDictionaryofCollocations,likeKenkyusha'sDictionaryofEnglishCollocations,publishedinTokyo,andADictionaryofEnglishCollocations,publishedinNanjingin1988.Dictionariesofsynonymsandthesauri.Therearespecialdictionariesofsynonymswhichgivefullertreatmenttosynonymsthangeneraldictionaries.OnesuchdictionaryisWebster'sDictionaryofSynonyms,andanotheroneisUsetheRightWord,compiledbytheeditorsofTheReader'sDigest.Ifsynonymsaregroupedtogetherwithoutexplanations,itisabookcalledthesaurus,whichmeansatreasurehouse.Suchabookisusefulinthatitmayremindyouofwordsyouhaveforgottenormayacquaintyouwithnewwordswiththemeaningyouareinterestedin.Soitisaword-suggester.Butbeforeyouuseanewword,youhavetolearnmoreaboutitasitisnotexplainedinthethesaurusyouareusing.Thebest-knownthesaurusisperhapsRoget's,firstpublishedin1852byMarkPeterRoget,anAmericanprofessor.Sincethenanumberofthesaurihavebeenpublished.HereisoneentryinWebster'sNewWorldThesaurus:abandonv.1.[Togiveup]leaveorgooff,quit,withdraw(from),discontinue,giveoverorup,throwover,breakoff,letgo,cease,castofforawayoraside,discard,vacate,giveaway,partwith,evacuate,surrender,yield,desist,concede,renounce,abdicate,losehopeof...2.[Toleavesomeoneorsomethingintrouble]desert,forsake,ostracize,backouton,break(up)with,runaway,defect,reject,disown,castoff,maroon,departfrom,giveover,throwoverboard,jettison,leavebehind,slipawayfrom...

20 ExercisesⅠ.Readthefollowingpassagecarefullyandthenanswerthequestions:Languageisourfacilitytotalktoeachother.Theword'talk'isusednotmerelytoavoidarathermoretechnicalandhigh-soundingwordlike'communicate';talkismorepreciseandmorerelevanttothespecialnatureofhumanlanguagethan'communicate'.Inthefirstplace,allcreatures-cat,sparrow,andbee-canbesaidtocommunicatewitheachothertosomeextent.Theycanattracteachother'sattention,warnofdanger,wootheirmates,anddirectthewaytofood.Wearestilllearningjusthowwellanimalscancommunicatewitheachother,buttherecanbenodoubtthatanimalcommunicationiswhollyrudimentaryascomparedwiththecomplexandsubtlecontroloflanguagepossessedbyeventheleastintelligentorleasteducatedEnglishtramporAustralianaboriginal.Itisthereforeappropriatetosaythatlanguageinvolves'talk'toemphasizethatlanguageisapeculiarlyhumanactivity.-RandolphQuirk1.Fromwhattypeofbookisthispassagetaken?Whatdoyouthinkisthepurposeofthebook?2.Isthebookwrittenforscientistsorforordinaryreaders?3.Arethereslangexpressionsinthepassage?Arethereformalwordsinit?Giveexamples.4.Isthedictionappropriateforthecontentofthepassage?Givereasons.Ⅱ.Readthefollowingpassagecarefullyandthenanswerthequestions:Thatnightinmyrentedroom,whilelettingthehotwaterrunovermycanofporkandbeansinthesink,Iopened[H.L.Menken's]ABookofPrefacesandbegantoread.Iwasjarredandshockedbythestyle,theclear,clean,sweepingsentences.Whydidhewritelikethat?Andhowdidonewritelikethat?Ipicturedthemanasaragingdemon,slashingwithhispen,consumedwithhate,denouncingeverythingAmerican,extollingeverythingEuropeanorGerman,laughingattheweaknessesofpeople,mockingGod,authority.Whatwasthis?Istoodup,tryingtorealizewhatrealitylaybehindthemeaningofthewords.Yes,thismanwasfighting,fightingwithwords.Hewasusingwordsasaweapon,usingthemasonewoulduseaclub.Couldwordsbeaweapon?Well,yes,forheretheywere.Thenmaybe,perhaps,Icouldusethemasaweapon?No.Itfrightenedme.Ireadonandwhatamazedmewasnotwhathesaid,buthowonearthanybodyhadthecouragetosayit.-RichardWright1.Readthesentenceswithshocked,raging,slashing,mocking,andamazedagainandexplainthemeaningofeachofthesewords.2.Thinkoftwowordsthataresynonymoustoeachoftheabovewords,substitute

21themforthelatter,andthencomparetheeffectofyourwordswiththatoftheoriginalones.Ⅲ.Ineachsentence,choosethemorepreciseofthetwoinitalics,andexplainyourreasons.1.Afewlistenersweredisinterested/uninterestedanddozedoff.2.Thoughshehasgrownup,herbehaviorisoftenchildlike/childish.3.Iamquitejealous/enviousofyouropportunitytostudyatsuchafamousuniversity.4.Herclothes,thoughmadeofcheap/inexpensivematerial,arequiteelegant.5.Thishomely/uglyoldmanisawell-knownmusician.6.Iamsorrytorefuse/declineyourinvitation.7.Hewassurprised/stunnedtofindthathislittlesisterhadbecomeapretty,slim/skinnyyoungwoman.8.Myunclebecamefat/stoutashegrewolder.9.Thisservilemanwasespeciallymodest/humblewhenhewastalkingwithhissuperiors.10.Iaskedevery/eachboyinthegroupthesamequestion,andinterestingly,everyone/eachgavemeadifferentanswer.11.Theenemytroopsweredrivenbackwhentheyattempted/triedtocrosstheborder.12.Theyallfeltsympathy/pityforthevictimsofthedisasterandmadedonations.13.EmpressDowagerCixiwasfamous/notoriousforhercruelty.14.Isthatold/elderlywoman/ladysittingonthebenchyourmother?Ⅳ.Thefollowingwordsarerathergeneralinmeaning.Thinkofwordsthataremorespecific.walklookatcryangrytreeanimalflowerwindrainⅤ.Givephrasalverbsthatmeanthesameasthefollowingverbs:continueendureinvestigateexpectdestroy(abuilding)buildstartpostponebegintolikeⅥ.Readthefollowingpassagecarefullyandthenanswerthequestions:Fivescoreyearsago,agreatAmerican,inwhosesymbolicshadowwestand,signedtheEmancipationProclamation.ThismomentousdecreecameasagreatbeaconlightofhopetomillionsofNegroslaveswhohadbeensearedintheflamesofwitheringinjustice.Itcameasajoyousdaybreaktoendthelongnightof

22captivity.Butonehundredyearslater,wemustfacethetragicfactthattheNegroisstillnotfree.Onehundredyearslater,thelifeoftheNegroisstillsadlycrippledbythemanaclesofsegregationandthechainsofdiscrimination.Onehundredyearslater,theNegrolivesonalonelyislandofpovertyinthemidstofavastoceanofmaterialprosperity.Onehundredyearslater,theNegroisstilllanguishinginthecornersofAmericansocietyandfindshimselfanexileinhisownland.Sowehavecomeheretodaytodramatizeanappallingcondition.-MartinLutherKing,Jr.1.Isthestyleofthepassageformalorinformal?2.Giveexamplesoftheformalwordsandexpressionsinthepassage.3.Whatrhetoricaldevicesareused?Giveexamples.Ⅴ.Namethefigureofspeechusedineachofthefollowingsentences:1.Herrichrelativesrainedbirthdaypresentsonheronlyson.2.Wrongideasmayharmamanjustlikediseases.3.Somewordsmaybedefacedbycarelessusage.4.Theleavesaretremblinginthecoldwind.5.Thestormwassoangrythatitwantedtodestroyeverythinginitsway.6.ManypeoplebowedbeforeForce,buteventuallyForcewouldsurrendertoReason.7.Selflesspeoplearelikecows,whicheatstrawbutproducemilk.8."Whatdoyouthinkoftheroastduck?""Notbad."9.Hisfriendspraisedhisdaughter'sperformancestotheskies.10.Hiswritingisclearandclean.11.Hisunfriendlytonguesurprisedher.12.ThereisfertilesoilforpopularmusicinChinatoday.PartThreeTheSentenceⅠ.CompleteSentencesandSentenceFragmentsAgrammaticallycompletesentenceisonethatcontainsatleastasubjectandapredicate(orfinite)verb;iftheverbistransitive,theremustbeanobject;iftheverbisalink-verb,theremustbeapredicativeorcomplement:     Hecame.     Shewrotealetter.     Dr.Smithisaprofessor.Itisimportanttorememberthisbasicstructureofasentence;otherwise,beginnersmightmakesentenceswithoutasubjectorapredicateverbor,both,like"Havedoneit,""Raining,"and"Howtouseit?"insteadof"Ihavedoneit,""Itisraining,"and

23"Howdoyouuseit?"Attributesandadverbials,thoughtheyarenotessentialelementsofasentence,helptomakethemeaningclearorcomplete:     Hecametotheclassroomveryearly.     Shewrotealonglettertoherparents.     Dr.Smithisawell-knownprofessorofphysics.Acompletesentencebeginswithacapitalletterandendswithaperiod.Again,thissimpleruleisimportantforbeginnerstoremember,forinChinesewritingcommasmaybeusedtoseparatecompletesentences.Theuseofacommainplaceofaperiod,asemicolon,acolon,oradashinEnglishwritingiscalledthecommafault,whichChinesestudentsshouldbeonguardagainst.Faulty:Itwasraininghard,theycouldnotworkinthefields.Improved:Itwasraininghard;theycouldnotworkinthefields.Itwasraininghard.Theycouldnotworkinthefields.Itwasrainingsohardthattheycouldnotworkinthefields.Theycouldnotworkinthefieldsbecauseitwasraininghard.Itwasraininghard,sotheycouldnotworkinthefields.Asitwasraininghard,theycouldnotworkinthefields.Faulty:Iwasborninasmalltown,inthetowntherewasonlyoneschool,Istudiedthereforsixyears.Improved:Iwasborninasmalltown.Inittherewasonlyoneschool.Istudiedthereforsixyears.InthesmalltownwhereIwasborn,therewasonlyoneschool,andIstudiedthereforsixyears.Iwasborninasmalltown,wheretherewasonlyoneschool.Istudiedthereforsixyears.IstudiedforsixyearsattheonlyschoolinthesmalltownwhereIwasborn.Thesentencesmarked"faulty"arenotgrammaticallywrong;theyarefaultybecauseoftheuseofthecommas.Thetwoexamplescontainfiveshortbutcompletesentences,eachofwhichshouldhavebeenclosedwithaperiod,orasemicolon.Itiseasytoseethattheimprovedsentenceslaystressondifferentpoints.Whichoneispreferabledependsonthecontextandonthewriter'sintention.Hereareexampleswiththesemicolon,thecolonandthedash:Faulty:Theessayispoorlyorganized,thereisnocentralidea.Improved:Theessayispoorlyorganized:thereisnocentralidea.Theessayispoorlyorganized;thereisnocentralidea.

24Faulty:Therewerepeoplewhowouldbegladtoseehimleavetheplace,heknewit.Improved:Therewerepeoplewhowouldbegladtoseehimleavetheplace,andheknewit.Therewerepeoplewhowouldbegladtoseehimleavetheplace-andheknewit.Faulty:Theprincipaloftheschoolmaydosomethingtoreducethepupils'homeworkload,hemay,forexample,stopassigninghomeworkforSaturdayandSunday.Improved:Theprincipaloftheschoolmaydosomethingtoreducethepupils'homeworkload-hemay,forexample,stopassigninghomeworkforSaturdayandSunday.Infiction,twoshortsentencescloselyconnectedinmeaningareoccasionallyjoinedbyacomma;inexpositorywriting,however,thegeneralruleistouseaperiodattheendofacompletesentence,whetheritislongorshort.Ithasbeensaidthatstudentsshouldmakesentencesthataregrammaticallycompleteandavoidmakingsentenceswithoutasubjectorapredicateverb.Butsometimesexperiencedwritersuseincompletesentencesforspecialeffect.Itishardtohearanewvoice,ashardasitistolistentoanunknownlanguage....Why?-Outoffear.Theworldfearsanewexperiencemorethanitfearsanything.Becauseanewexperiencedisplacessomanyoldexperiences.Anditisliketryingtousemusclesstiffforages.Ithurtshorribly.-D.H.LawrenceHewas,Ithink,veryhandsome.Igatherthisfromphotographsandfrommyownmemoriesofhim,dressedinhisSundaybestandonhiswaytopreachasermonsomewhere,whenIwaslittle.Handsome,proud,andingrown,"likeatoe-nail,"somebodysaid.-JamesBaldwinInthefirstpassagethreesentencesarenotcompleteinstructure("Why?""Outoffear."and"Becauseanewexperience...")andinthesecondonesentence("Handsome,proud...").Wefeelthatthesesentencesareforceful:themainideaismadeprominentbecausenootherideasareexpressed.Butsuchsentencesshouldbeusedwithcare.Onecouldtrytousethemafteronehasgotsomeexperienceinwriting.Ⅱ.TypesofSentences1.Declarative,Interrogative,Imperative,andExclamatorySentencesAccordingtotheiruse,sentencesaredeclarative,interrogative,imperative,orexclamatory.Adeclarativesentencemakesanassertionorastatement.Aninterrogativesentenceasksaquestion.Animperativesentenceexpressesacommand

25orarequest.Anexclamatorysentenceexpressesastrongfeelingoremotion,suchassurprise,pain,orjoy.2.Simple,Compound,Complex,andCompound-ComplexSentencesAccordingtotheirstructure,sentencesaresimple,compound,complex,orcompound-complex.Asimplesentencehasonlyonesubjectandonepredicate-verb,butitmaycontainmorethanoneobject,attributeoradverbial.Asentencewithtwoormoresubjectsorpredicate-verbslike"Heandhisbrotherwenttotownandboughtapileofbooks"iscalledasimplesentenceinsomegrammarbooksandacompoundoneinothers.Shortsimplesentencesareusuallyemphatic;theyhavespecialclarity,andprovidevarietywhenusedwithlongersentences.Acompoundsentenceconsistsoftwoormoreindependentclauses(orsimplesentences)relatedtoeachotherinmeaning,andlinkedbyacoordinatingconjunction(and,but,or,etc.)orbyasemicolonwithoutaconjunction.Coordinatedideasshouldbecompatibleandroughlyequalinimportance,ortakeshapeonebyoneinorderlysequence.Acomplexsentencecontainsonemain(orprincipal)clauseandoneormoredependent(orsubordinate)clauses,withaconnectiveworddenotingtherelationbetweenthetwoparts.Thedependentclausemayplaythepartofasubject,anobject,apredicative,anattribute,oranadverbialinthemainclause.Asarule,themajorideaisexpressedinthemainclauseandtheideaorideasoflesserimportanceinthesubordinateclauses.Acompound-complexsentencecontainsatleasttwomainclausesandatleastonedependentclause-acombinationofacompoundandacomplexsentence.Examinethefollowingexamples:    ToAmericans,industriousness,thrift,andambitionarepositivevalues.Weencourageourchildrentobecompetitive,togetahead,tomakemoney,toacquirepossessions.Ingamesandinbusinessaliketheaimistowinthegame,thetrophy,thecontract.Wegoinforlabor-savingdevices,gadgets,speed,andshort-cuts.Wethinkeveryyoungcoupleshouldsetupahomeoftheirown,andwepitythecouplewhomustsharetheirhomewithaparent,letalonewithotherrelatives.Actually,ofcourse,notallAmericansholdallthesevalues,andthosewhodomayholdother,andattimescontradictory,valuesthataffecttheirwaysofbehaving.Inthemain,however,thecollectiveexpectationofoursocietyisthatthesearedesirablegoals,andtheindividual,whateverhispersonalinclination,isunderconsiderablepressuretoconform.-InaCorinneBrownOurso-calledbestschools[ofcityslums]areturningoutstudentsmostofwhom,inanyrealandimportantsense,areasinarticulateasthemostdeprivedchildrenoftheghettos,aslittleabletospeakorwritesimplyanddirectlyaboutthingsofimportance

26tothem,whattheyknow,want,andcareabout.Thetraininginwritingthattheyget,unlesstheyareverylucky,islargelytraininginbullslingingandsnowjobbery.Everyyearstudentsatalllevelswritemillionsofpapers.Itisasafebetthatmostofthetime-Iwouldguessover95percent-thewritersofthesepapersdonotcareaboutandinfacthavenohonestandgenuineopinionsaboutwhattheyarewriting,andwouldnotwriteitiftheywerenotmadeto.Ionceaskedaveryablehighschoolsenior,astraightAstudentinEnglish,ifsheeverkeptanyofheroldEnglishpapers.Shelookedatmeamazed."Forheaven'ssake,"shesaid,"Whatfor?"-JohnHoltIneachoftheabovetwopassagesareusedvarioustypesofsentences,fromsimpletocompound-complex.Varietyinsentencestructureisgenerallyrequired.Shortsimplesentencesareoftenusedtomakeemphaticorimportantstatements,suchasthefirstsentenceofthefirstpassageandthelasttwosentencesofthesecondpassage.Longcomplexsentencesexpresscomplexideasclearlyandaccurately,fortheyhaveroomforallkindsofmodifiers.Thelasttwosentencesofthefirstpassageandthefirstandthirdsentencesofthesecondaregoodexamples.3.Loose,Periodic,andBalancedSentencesFromarhetoricalpointofview,sentencesareloose,periodic,orbalanced.Aloosesentenceputsthemainideabeforeallsupplementaryinformation;inotherwords,itputsfirstthingsfirst,andletsthereaderknowwhatitismainlyaboutwhenhehasreadthefirstfewwords.Thereversearrangementmakesaperiodicsentence:themainideaisexpressedatorneartheendofit,anditisnotgrammaticallycompleteuntiltheendisreached.Thereaderdoesnotknowwhatitismainlyaboutuntilhefinishesreadingit.Compare:ShedecidedtostudyEnglishthoughshewasinterestedinmusic.Althoughshewasinterestedinmusic,shefinallydecidedtostudyEnglish.ThemainideaofbothsentencesisthefactthatshedecidedtostudyEnglish.Thisideaisputatthebeginningofthefirstsentenceandattheendofthesecond,thusmakingonealoosesentenceandtheotheraperiodicone.Besides,thefirstpartofthefirstsentenceiscompleteinstructure,butthatofthesecondisonlyanadverbialclauseandcannotbecalledasentencewithoutthesecondpart.    Itisatruthuniversallyacknowledged,thatasinglemaninpossessionofagoodfortunemustbeinwantofawife.-JaneAusten

27ThisisthesentencewithwhichJaneAustenbeginsherPrideandPrejudice.Itisclearlyoftheperiodicstructurebecauseneitherinsyntaxnorinmeaningisitcompletebeforethelastword.Thesentencefollowsaclimacticorder,thelastwordbeingthethemostimportant,andbecausemanywordsarepiledupbeforethekeyword,thesenseofclimaxismadeverystrong.HereistheopeningparagraphofJosephConrad'sLordJim:    Hewasaninch,perhapstwo,undersixfeet,powerfullybuilt,andheadvancedstraightatyouwithaslightstoopoftheshoulders,headforward,andafixed-from-understarewhichmadeyouthinkofachargingbull.Hisvoicewasdeep,loud,andhismannerdisplayedakindofdoggedself-assertionwhichhadnothingaggressiveinit.Itseemedanecessity,anditwasdirectedapparentlyasmuchathimselfasatanybodyelse.Hewasspotlesslyneat,apparelledinimmaculatewhitefromshoestohat,andinthevariousEasternportswherehegothislivingasship-chandler'swater-clerkhewasverypopular.Mostofthesentencesarecompoundandcompound-complex,andallofthem,exceptthesecondhalfofthelastsentence,arelooseinstructure.Thereisnosuspenseorclimax;thetoneiseasy,relaxedandinformal.Thewriterusestheseloosesentencesbecauseheisenumeratingfactsorideasofequalimportance,andalsobecauseheaimsatanaturalandorderlypresentation.Loosesentencesareeasier,simpler,morenaturalanddirect;periodicsentencesaremorecomplex,emphatic,formal,orliterary.Herearemoreexamplesofthetwotypes:    Thesentenceyouarenowreadingissoconstructedthatthecompletionofitsmeaningandeffectdependonreadingittotheverylastword.Suchasentenceiscalledperiodic,ascontrastedwiththeothertype,loose,ofwhichthisisanexample-asentencethatmightbestoppedatseveralpoints(inthissentence,afterperiodic,type,loose,example,orpoints).Whenasentencecontainstwoormorepartsofthesameformandgrammaticalfunction,itisonewithparallelconstructions:Letusberuthlessinourcriticism,crueltopersonalvanities,indifferenttoage,rankorexperienceifthesestandinourway.-NormanBethuneItdoesnotdotoliveinmemories,inregretsforthegoodolddays,orinsadnessaboutfriendswhoaredead.One'sthoughtsmustbedirectedtothefuture,andtothingsaboutwhichthereissomethingtobedone.-BertrandRussell

28Thefeelingofthenationmustbequickened;theconscienceofthenationmustberoused;theproprietyofthenationmustbestartled;thehypocrisyofthenationmustbeexposed;anditscrimesagainstGodandmenmustbeproclaimedanddenounced.-FrederickDouglassSuchparallelsentencesareemphaticandforceful.Whenasentencecontainstwoparallelclausessimilarinstructurebutcontrastedinmeaning,itisabalancedsentence.Onhearingthenews,hewasangered,andIwassaddened.Thepoliticianisconcernedwithsuccessfulelections,whereasthestatesmanisinterestedinthefutureofhispeople.InPlato'sopinionmanwasmadeforphilosophy;inBacon'sopinionphilosophywasmadeforman.-ThomasBabingtonMacaulayBalancedsentencesareimpressivebecauseofthecontrast,andpleasingtohearbecauseoftherhythm.Theyaremainlyusedinformalwriting,likeexpositoryandargumentativeprose,andspeeches.4.ShortandLongSentencesShortsentencesareusuallyemphatic,whereaslongsentencesarecapableofexpressingcomplexideaswithprecision,becauseitmaycontainmanymodifiers.Shortsentencesaresuitableforthepresentationofimportantfactsandideas,andlongsentencesfortheexplanationofviewsandtheories,orthedescriptionofthingswithmanydetails.Lookatthefollowingpassagewhichmakesgooduseofshortsentences:    Ourcityisonthethresholdofagreatera.Ofthiswecanbesure.Butinordertofulfillthepromiseofthefuture,wemustbewillingtowork-andtospend.Weneedalargerpoliceforceforpublicprotection.Weneedamodernizedfiredepartment.Weneedanenlargedlibrary.Weneedtoincreasethepayscaleofteachersinthepublicschools.Weneedtoimproveourwatersupply.Foralltheseneedsthereisbutonesolution.WemustseethatthebondissueisapprovedbythevotersintheNovemberelection.Hereeachshortsentenceputsforwardanimportantsuggestion.Ifthepointsweregroupedintotwoorthreelongersentences,therewouldnotbetheforceandclarityoftheseshortsentences.Thefollowingpassagedescribeshowamansavedadrowninggirl:

29    Hecrouchedalittle,spreadinghishandsunderthewaterandmovingthemround,tryingtofeelforher.Thedeadcoldpondswayeduponhischest.Hemovedagain,alittledeeper,andagain,withhishandsunderneath,hefeltallaroundunderthewater.Andhetouchedherclothing.Butitevadedhisfingers.Hemadeadesperateefforttograspit....    Helaidherdownonthebank.Shewasquiteunconsciousandrunningwithwater.Hemadethewatercomefromhermouth,heworkedtorestoreher.Hedidnothavetoworkverylongbeforehecouldfeelthebreathingbeginagaininher;shewasbreathingnaturally.Heworkedalittlelonger.Hecouldfeelherlivebeneathhishands;shewascomingback.Hewipedherface,wrappedherinhisovercoat,lookedroundintothedim,darkgrayworld,thenliftedherandstaggereddownthebankandacrossthefields.-D.H.LawrenceThemanyshortsentencesintheabovepassagevividlydescribetheman'srapidmovementsandmakethereaderfeelthetensionthemanwasexperiencingatthemoment.Longsentencesarecommoninlegal,politicalandtheoreticalwriting,whichdependsonmodificationforaccuracy.Art,inthesensehereintended-thatis,thegenerictermsubsumingpainting,sculpture,architecture,music,dance,literature,drama,andfilm-maybedefinedasthepracticeofcreatingperceptibleformsexpressiveofhumanfeeling.Isay"perceptible"ratherthan"sensuous"formsbecausesomeworksofartaregiventoimaginationratherthantotheoutwardsenses.Anovel,forinstance,usuallyisreadsilentlywiththeeye,butisnotmadeforvision,asapaintingis;andthoughsoundplaysavitalpartinpoetry,wordseveninpoetryarenotessentiallysonorousstructureslikemusic...."Feeling"asIamusingitherecoversmuchmorethanitdoesinthetechnicalvocabularyofpsychology,whereitdenotesonlypleasureanddispleasure,orevenintheshiftinglimitsofordinarydiscourse,whereitsometimesmeanssensation(aswhenonesaysaparalyzedlimbhasnofeelinginit),sometimessensibility(aswespeakofhurtingsomeone'sfeelings),sometimesemotion(e.g.,asasituationissaidtoharrowyourfeelings,ortoevoketenderfeeling),oradirectedemotionalattitude(wesaywefeelstronglyaboutsomething),orevenourgeneralmentalorphysicalcondition,feelingwellorill,blue,orabitaboveourselves.AsIusetheword,indefiningartasthecreationofperceptibleformsexpressiveofhumanfeeling,ittakesinallthosemeanings;itappliestoeverythingthatmaybefelt.-SusanneK.LangerThewriteristryingtodefinesuchabstracttermsas"art"and"feeling",anditisnecessaryforhertousesomanywordstomakethedefinitionsaccurateandprevent

30misunderstanding.Infictionlongsentencesaresometimesusedtodescribeaperson,athingorascene.Mrs.Chalmerswaskindoffatandherhairwasprettyblondandhercomplexionwassoftandpinkandshealwayslookedasthoughshehadbeeninthebeautyparlorallafternoon.Shealwayssaid"My,you'regettingtobeabigboy"toPeterwhenshemethimintheelevator,inasoftvoice,asthoughshewasjustabouttolaugh.Shemusthavesaidthatfiftytimesbynow.Shehadagood,strongsmellofperfumeonherallthetime,too.Mr.Chalmersworepince-nezglassesmostofthetimeandhewasgettingbaldandheworkedlateathisofficeagoodmanyeveningsoftheweek.WhenhemetPeterintheelevatorhewouldsay,"It'sgettingcolder,"or"It'sgettingwarmer,"andthatwasall,soPeterhadnoopinionabouthim,exceptthathelookedliketheprincipalofaschool.ButnowMrs.Chalmerswasonherkneesinthevestibuleandherdresswastornandshewascryingandtherewereblackstreaksonhercheeksandshedidn'tlookasthoughshe'djustcomefromthebeautyparlor.AndMr.Chalmerswasn'twearingajacketandhedidn'thavehisglassesonandwhathairhehadwasmussedalloverhisheadandhewasleaningagainsttheEarlyAmericanwallpapermakingthisanimalnoise,andhehadabig,heavypistolinhishandandhewaspointingitrightatMrs.Chalmers.-IrwinShawOftheeightsentencesintheabovepassagesixarelong,andtheygivedetaileddescriptionsofthetwocharacters.Weretheybrokenintomanyshortsentences,thecontrastbetweenthenormalChalmerscoupleandthecoupleonthatparticularoccasionwouldnotbesostriking.Varioussentencestructureshavebeendiscussed.Thebasicprincipleisthatthestructureshouldfittheideabeingexpressed.Inotherwords,theideadeterminesthechoiceofthestructure,nottheotherwayround.Ⅲ.EffectiveSentences1.UnityUnityisthefirstqualityofaneffectivesentence.Aunifiedsentenceexpressesasinglecompletethought.Itdoesnotcontainideasthatarenotcloselyrelated,nordoesitexpressathoughtthatisnotcompletebyitself.Faulty:BorninasmalltowninSouthChinaintheearly50s,hegrewuptobeafamousmusician.Revised:HewasborninasmalltowninSouthChinaintheearly50s.Inhischildhoodhelikedtosingsongs.Laterheenteredaconservatory.Inthe70shebecameafamousmusician.

31Thetwopartsoftheoriginalsentencearenotlogicallyconnected,becauseamanborninasmalltowninSouthChinaintheearly50swouldnotnecessarilybecomeafamousmusician.Sothesentencelacksunity.Therevisedsentencesarebetter,ashowandwhenhebecameamusicianisexplained.Faulty:DuFuwasoneofthegreatestpoets.Revised:DuFuwasoneofthegreatestpoetsoftheTangperiod.Thefirstsentenceisfaultybecausetheideaexpressedisnotcomplete:thereisnomentionofthetimeorcountry."TheTangperiod"makestheseclear,forweallknowthattheTangwasadynastyinChinesehistory.2.CoherenceCoherencemeansclearandreasonableconnectionbetweenparts.Asentenceiscoherentwhenitswordsorpartsareproperlyconnectedandtheirrelationshipsunmistakablyclear.Itisnotcoherentifithasfaultyparallelconstructions,pronounswithambiguousreference,danglingormisplacedmodifiers,confusingshiftsinpersonandnumber,orinvoice,tense,andmood.Faulty:Amanisjudgednotonlybywhathesaysbutalsobyhisdeeds.Revised:Amanisjudgednotonlybywhathesaysbutalsobywhathedoes.Amanisjudgednotonlybyhiswordsbutalsobyhisdeeds.Faulty:Wethoughtshewascharming,intelligent,andaverycapableyoungwoman.Revised:Wethoughtshewascharming,intelligent,andverycapable.Wethoughtshewasacharming,intelligent,andverycapableyoungwoman.Faulty:Wehavegreatfaithandhighhopesforher.Revised:Wehavegreatfaithinandhighhopesforher.    Parallelideashadbetterbeexpressedinparallelconstructions,whichgiveemphasis,clarityandcoherencetoasentence."Whathesays"and"hisdeeds"arenotparallelinform,sooneofthemhastobechanged.Thesecondsentenceisfaultyforthesamereasonandcanbeimprovedinthesameway.Inthethird,"faith"and"hope"areparallel,buttheyshouldbefollowedbydifferentprepositions.Faulty:Shetoldmysisterthatshewaswrong.Revised:"I'mwrong,"shesaidtomysister.Sheadmittedthatshewaswrongandsaidsotomysister."You'rewrong,"shesaidtomysister.Mysisterwastoldthatshewaswrong.Faulty:Hewasknockeddownbyabicycle,butitwasnotserious.Revised:Hewasknockeddownbyabicycle,butwasnotbadlyhurt.Faulty:I'mgoingtothelectureonmodernChinesedrama,becauseheisadramatistI

32like.Revised:I'mgoingtothelectureonmodernChinesedrama,becausethespeakerisadramatistIlike.Ineachofthethreefaultysentencesthereisapronounwithambiguousreference.Thesecondsheinthefirstsentencemayrefertothesubjector"mysister";theonlynouninthesecondsentenceisbicycle,hutitdoesnotrefertoit;nothirdpersonismentionedinthethirdsentence,soitishardtoknowwhomhestandsfor.Thesefaultsarecorrectedintherevisedsentences.Faulty:Lookingoutofthewindow,thegrasslandstretchesasfarastheeyecanreach.Revised:Lookingoutofthewindow,he(she,I)canseethegrasslandstretchingasfarastheeyecanreach.Outsidethewindow,thegrasslandstretchesasfarastheeyecanreach.Faulty:Onenteringtheclassroom,thestudentsstoodupandsaid,"Goodmorning!"Revised:Whentheteacherenteredtheclassroom,thestudentsstoodupandsaid,"Goodmorning!"Onenteringtheclassroom,theteacherwasgreetedbythestudents,whostoodupandsaid,"Goodmorning!"Faulty:Togetreadyforthetrip,allthethingssheneededwereputintoasuitcase.Revised:Togetreadyforthetrip,sheputallthethingssheneededintoasuitcase.Ineachoftheabovefaultysentencesthereisadanglingmodifier(Looking...,Onentering...,orToget...),whichisnotgrammaticallyrelatedtothenounorpronounitisintendedtomodify.Thatnounorpronounisnoteveninthesentence,ornotinapositiontotakethemodificationifitisinthesentence.Becauseoftheuseofadanglingmodifier,suchasentenceisnotcoherentandmaybehardtounderstand.Thereareafewsetphrasesoftenusedtomodifywholesentences,like"tobefrank,""generallyspeaking,""judgingby...,"and"speakingof...."Theylooklikedanglingmodifiersbuttheyarenot.Judgingbywhatthenewspapershavesaid,hislatestplayisquitesuccessful.Tobefrank,heisnottherightmanforthisimportantjob.Wehavetostudymanycourses:Chinese,English,maths,physics,chemistry,history,geography,justtonameafew.Herearemoreincoherentsentences:Faulty:Ireadaninterestingstoryinamagazineaboutsportsmen.Revised:Ireadinamagazineaninterestingstoryaboutsportsmen.InamagazineIreadaninterestingstoryaboutsportsmen.Faulty:Sheboughtseveralpicturebooksandputthemintoherbag,whichsheintendedtogivetoherchildren.Revised:Sheboughtseveralpicturebooksforherchildrenandputthemintoherbag.Sheputintoherbagthepicturebooksshehadboughtforherchildren.Faulty:Theideahementionedatfirstsounded

33good.Revised:Theideahefirstmentionedsoundedgood.Theideahementionedsoundedgoodatfirst.Thethreesentencesarelabelled"faulty"becauseoftheunclearorwrongconnectionbetweencertainparts.Inthefirstsentence"aboutsportsmen"seemstomodify"magazine,"butitshouldmodify"story."Inthesecondthewhich-clauseisrelatedto"bag",butapparentlyitismeanttomodify"books."Inthethird"atfirst"maymodify"mentioned"andmayalsomodify"sounded"-anambiguitythatshouldbeclearedup.Allthefaultsarecausedbymisplacedmodifiers.Faulty:Hegaveareasonfornotattendingthemeeting,whichnobodybelieved.Revised:Hegaveareason,whichnobodybelieved,fornotattendingthemeeting.Hegaveareasonfornotattendingthemeeting,areasonwhichnobodybelieved.Intheoriginalsentencethewhich-clausemodifies"meeting,"butitismeanttomodify"reason."Amisplacedmodifieragain.Onewaytocorrectthefaultistomovetheclauseforwardsothatitisclosetotheworditmodifies;anotherwayistorepeattheantecedentifitisgoodtokeeptheclauseattheendofthesentence.Faulty:Animportantthingforthestudenttorememberisthatwhenwritingapaper,youshouldnotplagiarize.Revised:Animportantthingforthestudenttorememberisthatwhenwritingapaper,heshouldnotplagiarize.Faulty:ThosewhowishtotakeLinguisticsareexpectedtosignhisnameonthissheetofpaper.Revised:ThosewhowishtotakeLinguisticsareexpectedtosigntheirnamesonthissheetofpaper.Faulty:Studentsshouldlearntoanalyzeandsolveproblemsindependently.Don'trelyonyourteachers'help.Revised:Studentsshouldlearntoanalyzeandsolveproblemsindependently.Theyshouldnotrelyontheirteachers'help.Faulty:Shereviewedthelessontaughtlastweekandalltheexercisesassignedbytheteacherweredone.Revised:Shereviewedthelessontaughtlastweekanddidalltheexercisesassignedbytheteacher.Thefaultysentencesarenotcoherentbecauseofaconfusingchangeinperson,innumber,inmood,andinvoicerespectively.Asentenceshouldbeconsistentintheserespects.Unnecessaryshiftsshouldbeavoided.3.ConcisenessAsentenceshouldcontainnounnecessarywords.Iftheideaisfullyexpressed,thefewerwordsareused,thebetter.Wordinessonlyobscures,insteadofclarifying,theidea.Butoneoftenusesmorewordsthannecessary,soitisagoodhabittoreread

34whathasbeenwrittentoseeiftherearewordsthatcanbedeletedwithoutaffectingthemeaningexpressed.Comparethefollowing:Wordy:Itwasblueincolor.Itwassmallinsize.Maryisaquietandcarefulwoman.HereturnedintheearlypartofthemonthofAugust.Concise:Itwasblue.Itwassmall.Maryisquietandcareful.HereturnedinearlyAugust.Repetitionissometimesnecessaryforemphasis,butunnecessaryrepetition,eitherofthesamewordsorofdifferentwordswiththesamemeaning,shouldbeavoided.Wordy:Hegavemanyreasonsforthefailure,butthereasonshegavewerenotconvincing.Concise:Hegavemanyreasonsforthefailure,butnoneofthemwasconvincing.Wordy:Inmyopinion,Ithinkyourplanisfeasible.Concise:Inmyopinion,yourplanisfeasible.Ithinkyourplanisfeasible.Wordy:Thismachinewasjointlydesignedbytheoldengineerincollaborationwithsomeofhisyoungercolleagues.Concise:Thismachinewasjointlydesignedbytheoldengineerandsomeofhisyoungercolleagues.Thismachinewasdesignedbytheoldengineerincollaborationwithsomeofhisyoungercolleagues.Thesamewordsarerepeatedinthefistsentence,anddifferentwordswiththesamemeaning("Inmyopinion"and"Ithink,""jointly"and"incollaborationwith")areusedinthesecondandthirdsentences.Concisenesscansometimesbeachievedbychangingthesentencestructure.Compare:Wordy:Therewasapinetreethatstoodlikeagiantonthetopofthemountain.Ittoweredoverthetreesaroundit.Concise:Thepinetreeonthetopofthemountainstoodlikeagiantandtoweredoverthetreesaroundit.Thegiantpinetreeonthetopofthemontaintoweredoverthetreesaroundit.Onthetopofthemountainwasagiantpinetreewhichtoweredoverthetreesaroundit.Wordy:Mr.SmithusuallylikestodrinkallkindsofwinesthatareproducedinFrance.Concise:Mr.SmithpreferswinesproducedinFrance.Mr.SmithprefersFrenchwines.Wordy:LiQing,whowasafirst-yearstudentofthecollege,wouldgotoaparknearherschooleverydayinthemorning.Shewouldbringasmallrecorderwithher.In

35theparkshewouldfindaquietcornerandlistentoatapeofEnglishstories.Concise:Everymorning,LiQing,afirst-yearstudentofthecollege,wouldgotoanearbypark,bringingasmallrecorderwithher.ThereshewouldlistentoatapeofEnglishstoriesinaquietcorner.Theseexamplesshowthatsometimesaclausecanbereplacedbyaphraseandaphrasebyawordwithoutanychangeinthemeaning.Theyalsoshowthatsometimestwosentencesmaybecombinedwiththeideaofthelessimportantoneexpressedinaparticipialphrase,anattributiveclause,orsomeotherform.4.EmphasisWhenthereisanimportantidea,itshouldbeexpressedwithemphasis.Inspeechpeopleusevariouswaysforthispurpose,suchasspeakingloudly,orslowly,sayingveryshortsentences,orusingagesture.Inwritingtherearealsowaysforplacingemphasisonsentencesorwordsthatshouldbeemphasized.(1)EmphaticSentencesInapassagetheremaybesentenceswhicharemoreimportantthanothersbecausetheyconveymoreimportantideasthanothersdo.Suchsentencesmaybeemphasizedinthefollowingways:Shortsentences.Ithasbeenmentionedthatshortsentencesaremoreemphaticthanlongones,especiallyatthebeginningorendofaparagraph,orinthemidstoflongsentences.Sentencefragments.Theyarealsocalledone-membersentences.Theyareemphaticbecausetheycontainonlythefewwordsthatexpressthemainidea;Theskywasovercast.Anorthwindwasblowing.Itthreatenedtorainatanymoment.Agloomyday.Invertedsentences.Theyareemphaticbecausetheirunusualwordorderdrawsthereader'sattention:Inrushedthenoisychildren.Thepoetwasbornpoor,andpoorheremainedallhislife.Parallelconstructionsandbalancedsentences.Forexamplesseethesectionontypesofsentences.Periodicsentences.Theirclimacticwordordermakesthememphatic.Forexamplessee"TypesofSentences."Imperativeandexclamatorysentences.Theyarenaturallyemphatic:Don'tmove!Hownice!

36Rhetoricalquestions.Theyarequestionsinformbutemphaticstatementsinmeaning:Didn'tItellyouthatyoumustn'ttouchthismachine?Ididn'tgetaticketfortheopera.HowcouldI?Youcallthatagoodplay?Whatisgoodaboutit?Cananyonebelievehisexplanation?Negative-positivestatements.Theyfirstpointoutwhatisnotthetruth,andthenwhatis.Thecontrastmakesthememphatic:Thedelegatesshoutedandquarrelled.Itwasnotameeting;itwasafarce.Thereweresomanyerrorsintheperformancethattheresultwasnotatragedy,butacomedy.Sentenceswithrepeatedwordsorphrases.Therepetitiongivesemphasistosuchsentences:Governmentofthepeople,bythepeople,forthepeopleshallnotperishfromtheearth.-AbrahamLincolnReadthefollowingtwopassagescarefullyandyouwillfindmanyoftheabovewaysforemphasisemployedinthem.IlovedlovedthesoundofMartinLutherKing'svoice,itseloquent,oratoricalcadences.Attheclimaxofthe1965Montgomerymarchhehadcriedout,"Howlongwillittakebeforemypeopleachievefullequality?"Then,answeringhisownquestion,heshouted:"Itwillnottakelongbecausetruthpressedtotheearthwillriseagain.Howlong?Notlong,becausenoliecanliveforever.Howlong?Notlong,becauseyoustillreapwhatyousow.Howlong?Notlong,becausethearmofthemoraluniverseislong,butitbendstowardpeace."IwasjustpullingintoactorMarlonBrando'syardintheHollywoodhillswhenthenewscameovermycarradio."MartinLutherKing,Jr.,hasjustbeenfatallywoundedinMemphis,Tennessee!"Istoppedthecarabruptlyasiftheannouncer'svoicehaddemandedit."MyGod,myGod,"Isaid,overandovertomyself.Itwasabottomlessmoment.ThatvoiceIhadlovedsomuchhadbeenstilled-forever.Itwasaterriblemoment,withoutsound,withoutmotion,withoutreason.-GordonParksThesesprays,dusts,andaerosolsarenowappliedalmostuniversallytofarms,gardens,forests,andhomes-nonselectivechemicalsthathavethepowertokilleveryinsect,the"good"andthe"bad",tostillthesongofbirdsandtheleapingoffishinthestreams,tocoattheleaveswithadeadlyfilm,andtolingeroninsoil-allthisthough

37theintendedtargetmaybeonlyafewweedsorinsects.Cananyonebelieveitispossibletolaydownsuchabarrageofpoisonsonthesurfaceoftheearthwithoutmakingitunfitforalllife?Theyshouldnotbecalled"insecticides,"but"biocides."-RachelCarson(2)EmphasiswithintheSentenceVeryoftenapartofasentence,whetheritisawordoraphrase,shouldbegivenemphasisbecauseitiswherethemainpointofthesentenceis.Variouswayscanbeusedtoachievethis.Placing.Thebeginningandtheend,especiallytheend,ofasentencearethetwoplacesthatattractthereader'sattention.Ifpossible,importantwordsshouldbeputthere.Compare:Thereisabigtree,whichissaidtobe300yearsold,inthetemple.Inthetemplethereisabigtree,whichissaidtobe300yearsold.Therehavebeenmanygreatdiscoveriesmadebyscientistsinthe20thcentury.Manygreatdiscoverieshavebeenmadebyscientistsinthe20thcentury.Inthe20thcenturyscientistshavemademanygreatdiscoveries.WangBingismodestandhardworkingandisagoodstudent.Modestandhardworking,WangBingisagoodstudent.WangBingisagoodstudent,modestandhardworking.Repetition.Unnecessaryrepetitionaddsnothingnewtothemeaningofasentence;thereforeitshouldbeavoided.Butsometimes,inapropercontextrepeatingawordoranideaindifferentwordsmaybeameansofemphasis.Bright,verybright,werethestarsoverthewild,darkYenanhills.-AnnaLouiseStrongSimplicity,simplicity,simplicity!Isay,letyouraffairsbeastwoorthree,andnotahundredorathousand...Simplify,simplify.InsteadofIthreemealsaday,ifitbenecessary,eatbutone;insteadofahundreddishes,five;andreduceotherthingsinproportion.-HenryDavidThoreau"Repeatinganideaindifferentwords"doesnotmeansimplyusingsynonyms.Instead,thesecondmentionofanideashouldinsomewayintensifythefirst.Thegoodolddaysweregoneforever,couldneverbegotbackagain.Shelookedatthestrangerwithtimidsuspicionanduneasydoubt.

38"Weregoneforever"and"couldneverbegotbackagain"areroughlysynonymous;soare"timidsuspicion"and"uneasydoubt".Ineachpairthesecondphrasecarriesthemeaningofthefirstastepfurther,thusgivingemphasistotheideaofthefirstone.Theverbandtheactivevoice.Whendescribingactions,onehadbetteruseverbsinsteadofnounsdenotingactions,forverbsaregenerallymorevividandemphaticthannouns.Compare:Atthesightofthedisorderlycrowd,hewasawarethatsomethingbadwouldbepossible.Themomenthesawthedisorderlycrowd,heknewthatsomethingbadwouldhappen.Thethreeverbsinthesecondsentence(saw,knewandhappen)giveitafeelingofimmediacyandurgency,whichisabsentinthefirst.Inthedarktheoldmancouldfeelthemorningcomingandasherowedheheardthetremblingsoundasflyingfishleftthewaterandthehissingthattheirstiffsetwingsmadeastheysoaredawayinthedarkness.-ErnestHemingwayThemanyfiniteverbsandparticiplesinthissentencemakethereaderfeelthattheseawasfullofactionatthetimedescribed.Andalltheverbsareintheactivevoice,whichcarriesgreaterforcethanthepassive.Forthepassiveoftendenotesastateratherthananaction.Weplantedmanytreesyesterday.Manytreeswereplantedyesterday.Obviously,thefirstsentencestressestheactionofplanting,andthesecondtheresultoftheaction.Thepassivemaybeusefulwhentheresultismoreimportantthantheactionitself,orwhenthedoeroftheactionisnotsoimportantasthereceiver,asin:LuXun'sworkshavebeentranslatedintomanylanguages.Morehighriseswillbebuiltontheoutskirtsofthecity.Subordination.Thismeansputtingaminorideainadependentelementofthesentencesoastogivethemainideaaprominentposition.Hereisasentencecontainingtwoideas:Theprofessorwalkedintotheclassroomandhecarriedabagofbookswithhim.Thecoordinatestructuresuggeststhatthetwoideasareequallyimportant.Butinfactthefirstshouldbethemainidea,andthesecondshouldbesubordinated:

39Theprofessorwalkedintotheclassroom,carryingabagofbookswithhim.Theprofessorwalkedintotheclassroomwithabagofbooksunderhisarm.Theprofessorwalkedintotheclassroom,abagofbooksunderhisarm.Aseriesofshortsentences,ifrelatedinmeaning,maybecombinedwiththemainideaproperlyemphasized:Theywerewaitingforthemeetingtobegin.Theytalkedwitheachother.Theytalkedaboutthewomen'sfootballteam.TheteamhadwonvictoriesinGuangzhou.Whilewaitingforthemeetingtobegin,theytalkedaboutthevictorieswonbythewomen'sfootballteaminGuangzhou.Liisanewstudent.Hecomesfromasouthernprovince.Hespeaksadialect.Wefindithardtounderstandhisdialect.Li,anewstudentfromasouthernprovince,speaksadialectwhichisdifficultforustounderstand.Ayoungworkerwaslearningtooperatethemachine.Anoldworkerwasstandingbyher.Hewaswatchingherattentively.Ayoungworkerwaslearningtooperatethemachine,anoldworkerstandingbyandwatchingherattentively.Whentheyoungworkerwaslearningtooperatethemachine,theoldworkerwasstandingbyandwatchingherattentively.GeneralGrantwasanoutstandingcommander,buthewasnotawisepresident.Thisiswhatourhistoryprofessorsaid.OurhistoryprofessorsaidthatGeneralGrantwasnotawisepresident,thoughhewasanoutstandingcommander.Accordingtoourhistoryprofessor,GeneralGrant,whowasanoutstandingcommander,wasnotawisepresident.Emphaticwordsandphrases.Therearewordsandphrasesthatmaybeusedtoemphasizeotherwords.Thefollowingareafewexamples:ThisistheverydictionaryIhavebeenlookingfor.Thedirectorhimselftoldmethisnews.DotellusaboutyourrecentAntarcticexpedition.Hislatestnovelisbyfarthebesthehaseverwritten.Thistheatreisfarbetterthantheonewewenttolasttime.I'msohungrythatI'lleatwhateverfoodIcanfind.Whatoneartharethechildrendoinginthenextroom?Idon'tliketheplayatall.Youcanbuyeverythingunderthesuninthisdepartmentstore.Manypeasantshavemotorcycles,nottomention(letalone)TVsetsandrecorders.Alliteration.Itmeanstheappearanceofthesameconsonantsoundatthebeginningoftwoormorewords,like"busyasabee".

40DuringthenationalliberationmovementofthisAfricancountry,thecolonialgovernmentwasfacedwiththechoicebetweentheballotandthebullet.5.VarietyVarietyisessentialtogoodwriting.Aseriesofsentencesofthesamestructureandlength,beginningwiththesamenounorpronounasthesubject,wouldsoundmonotonous.Varietyisachievedwhenshortsentencesareusedinbetweenlongones,simplesentencesinbetweencompoundandcomplexones,periodicsentencesinbetweenlooseones.Anoccasionalquestion,command,orexclamationamongstatementsmayalsobehelpful.Butvarietyisnottobesoughtforitsownsake.ThestructureandlengthofsentencesareprimarilydeterminedbytheIdeastobeexpressed.Onlywhenideasareproperlyexpressedisvarietydesirable.ThepassagebelowistakenfromChurchill'sspeechonHitler'sinvasionoftheU.S.S.R.Whileexpressinghisviewsanddecisioninaveryforcefulway,thespeakerusesavarietyoftypesofsentences.  IhavetodeclarethedecisionofHisMajesty'sGovernment-andIfeelsureitisadecisioninwhichthegreatDominionswillinduecourseconcur-forwemustspeakoutnowatonce,withoutaday'sdelay.Ihavetomakethedeclaration,butcanyoudoubtwhatourpolicywillbe?Wehavebutoneaimandonesingleirrevocablepurpose.WeareresolvedtodestroyHitlerandeveryvestigeoftheNaziregime.Fromthisnothingwillturnus.Nothing.Wewillneverparley;wewillnevernegotiatewithHitleroranyofhisgang.Weshallfighthimbyland;weshallfighthimbysea;weshallfighthimintheair,until,withGod'shelp,wehaveridtheearthofhisshadowandliberateditspeoplefromhisyoke.AnymanorstatewhofightsonagainstNazidomwillhaveouraid.AnymanorstatewhomarcheswithHitlerisourfoe....Thatisourpolicyandthatisourdeclaration.ItfollowsthereforethatweshallgivewhateverhelpwecantoRussiaandtheRussianpeople.Weshallappealtoallourfriendsandalliesineverypartoftheworldtotakethesamecourseandpursueit,asweshallfaithfullyandsteadfastlytotheend.Apartfromshortandlongsentences,looseandperiodicsentences,Churchillusesarhetoricalquestion("Canyoudoubt...?"),repeatscertainwordsandcertainideasindifferentwords("nowatonce,withoutaday'sdelay,""oneaimandonesingleirrevocablepurpose"),andusesparallelconstructions("Weshallfighthimbyland;weshallfighthimbysea;...),balancedsentences("Anymanorstatewhofights...Anymanorstatewhomarches..."),andasentencefragment("Nothing.").Asaresult,alltheideasthatshouldbestressedarestressed,andatthesametime,thepassageisfullofvarietyinsentencepattern,length,andrhythm.Ⅰ.Readthefollowingandsaywhatkindofsentenceeachis(loose,periodic,orbalanced):

411.Itisapleasuretoreadgoodbooks.2.Shemissedthestepandsprainedherankle.3.Badlyfrightenedbytheexplosion,theboyrushedoutofthelaboratory.4.TheWangsmusthavegoneawayforthesummerholidays,forwehavenotseenthemfortwoorthreeweeks.5.Therewerethetranslatorsintheirbooths,andthegirlsecretariesatthedoors,andthereportersgrumblingandscribblingintheirseats.6.Ourfriends,whohadstartedbeforeus,promisedthattheywouldmeetus,butwhenwearrivedatthebusstop,theywerenowheretobeseen.7.ThenewthingthathappenedtomeinthetownwasthatIwasthrownintoexperiencesthatfinallyseemedtocutmytiestothewalled-worldofmychildhood.8.Inthespeechesofpoliticianstowardsthecloseof1919andthespringof1920,therewasmanifestanincreasingrecognitionofthefactthatwhatiscalledthecapitalistsystem-theprivateownershipsystemthatis,inwhichprivateprofitistheworkingincentive-wasontrial.9.ItwillnotbedonebytheGovernment;itcannotbedonebyParliament.10.Therearestilltwowidelydifferentmethodsofgettingwhatyouwant.Oneistomakeyourselfsousefulthatothersaregladtopayyou,orgiveyouwhatyouwant,inreturnforyourserviceoryourproduct;theotheristomakeyourselfsodangerousthatotherswillbeafraidtorefusewhatyoudemand.Theoneappealstogoodwill;theothertofear.Theoneisconstructive;theotherisdestructive.Theoneisthemethodofcivilisedmen;theotheristhemethodofsavages.Ⅱ.Readthefollowing,pointoutthemistakesandmakenecessarycorrections:1.Ourhostentertaineduswithmanyinterestingstoriesofadventure,hehadbeenamemberofanexplorationteamworkingintheArctic.2.WhenIwokeupIsawhimasleepinbed,Ihadnotheardhimwhenhecameback.BecauseIhadbeensleepingsoundly.3.Liualwaysdidhisworkalittlebetterthanhisfellowworkers,thatwaswhyhegothigherpaythanothers.4.Nostudentcouldanswerthatquestion,evenYao,whowasusuallyquickinansweringquestions,wassilent.5.LinlookslikeLi,however,theyarenotrelated.6.Theoldmanhunchedforward.Hisheadtiltedatanangle.Hiseyeshalfclosed,lookingverysleepy.7.Theirworkwaswellplanned,everybodyworkedwithgreatenthusiasm,thus,theyoverfulfilledtheirquota.8.MarkTwain,awell-knownAmericanwriter,whoseexperienceasapilotonasteamboatwasnodoubtanimportantfactorthathelpedhimtobecomeafamouswriter.Ⅲ.Rewritethefollowingbyputtingtheshortsentencesintocompoundorcomplexsentences,orsentenceswithparticipial,prepositional,orotherphrases:

421.Xucomesfromaworking-classfamily.Heenrolledincollegelastfall.2.Thedeanissuedabulletin.Itsaidthelibrarywouldremainopenonweekends.3.Lastnightwasawildnight.Thethunderroared.Thewindblewagale.Therainfellintorrents.4.Thereareiciclesonthetrees.Thetemperaturemusthavefallenconsiderablyduringthenight.5.Hereturnedtohishometown.Hehadbeenawayfortwelveyears.Helookedinvainforthefamiliarlandmarks.6.Wehavemadesomeprogress.Westillhavealongwaytogo.7.Theskywascloudless.Thesunwasshiningbrightly.8.Therewereovertwohundredpassengersonboardtheplane.Aboutonethirdofthemwereforeigners.9.Thegirlbegantolearntoplaythepianowhenshewasachild.Hermotherwasafamouspianist.10.Napoleonwasbornin1769.AtthattimeCorsicahadjustbeenacquiredbyFrance.11.Sheappearedonthestage.Astormyapplausebrokeforth.12.ThegypsiesarereallyanomadicpeoplefromIndia.TheymigratedintoEurope.OncetheywerethoughttobeEgyptians.13.Thenewworkersareyoungandinexperienced.Theyareeagertolearnfromtheveteranworkers.14.Itwasapoorquarter.Therewerealotofsmallhuts.Theyhadmudwallsandstrawroofs.Theydottedahillside.15.Heheardthathisfatherwasill.Hewasanxioustogohometoseehim.Hewenttothestationearlyinthemorningtobuyaticket.Ⅳ.Thefollowingsentencesarenotunifiedorcoherent.Trytoimprovethem:1.Shebegantospeakveryfastatthemeetingatteno'clock.2.BernardShawwasoneofthebest-knownplaywrights.3.Thehousesweremereshanties,andragswerestuffedinthecracksandholes.4.Ireadthenovelonthetrain,whichdidnotinterestmeatall.5.Awell-dressedmanadmittedustothehouse,andwelaterlearnedthathewasathief.6.Ilostsomeimportantdocumentsandfoundthemthreedayslater.Thepolicehadhelpedme.7.Weenteredtheshop,andasaleswomangreetedus,andallkindsofshoeswereontheshelves,andthepriceswerequitereasonable,andalotofcustomerswerebuyingthem.8.TellHelen,ifsheisathome,Iwillcometoseeher.9.Listeningattentively,afaultysoundwasheard.10.Onenteringtheroom,noonewasseen.11.Fredisenergetic,capable,andamanyoucanrelyon.12.Thechildrenpromisedtobecarefulandthattheywouldreturnhomeearly.13.Dickens'snovelsoffernosolutiontothesocialinjusticesheexposesinthem.14.Mywatchiseitherfastoryoursis

43slow.15.Glancingoutofthewindow,abeautifulviewattractedmyattention.16.Henearlyfinishedreadingtenbooksduringthevacation.17.Ifinterestedinpainting,acoursecanbetakenattheeveningschool.18.Shesaidthatshewouldcomeifshecould,butnottowaitforher.19.Totellmyfriendthegoodnewstheletterwaspostedatonce.20.Iwillgotothelecture,forIlikehispoems.Ⅴ.Revisethefollowingsentences.Trytomakethemconcise.1.Intheyear1840theOpiumWarbrokeout.2.Therearemorebooksintheirlibrarythaninourlibrary.3.Hereturnedbackhomeafterhegraduatedfromcollege.4.Weplannedtomeetjustbeforesunriseveryearlyinthemorning5.Thecauseofthefloodwasduetotheheavyraininlatespring.6.Hewasaskedtorepeatthesentenceagain.7.Iplaybadmintonequallyaswellasmybrother.8.Itseemedtohisfriendsthathisattitudewasofapuzzlingnature.9.Thesewatermelonsarelargeinsizeandsweetintaste.10.Hedidnottellthetruthwithanhonestattitude.11.Thereareanumberofstudentswhowanttojointhedramaclub.12.Hewaskindenoughtoletmesharethesameumbrellawithhim.13.Zhaowasthepersonwhowaselectedtherepresentativeoftheclassbythewholeclass.14.AtthepresenttimeIamtakingthecourseofWorldHistoryandinadditionacourseingeographytoo.15.Theplanecircledaroundtheairportforabouttenminutesorsoandthandisappearedandcouldnolongerbeseen.16.WhatIamtryingtosayisthatinmyopinionhehasnotdonehisworkverywellanditneedsimproving.17.IwouldlikeyoutoconsiderthequestionofwhetherornotyouwillletourjournalpublishyourrecentarticleonwomenscientistsinChina.18.Owingtothefactthathehadmissedmanylectures,hewasawarethatitwouldbepossibleforhimtofailtheexam.19.Youmustfirstworkoutanoutlineforyourpaper,andthenafteryouhavedonethat,youneedtocollectallkindsofmaterialtosupportyourpointofview.20.Inthatcountryviolentdeathhasbecomeacommonplacething,athingthatoccurseveryday.21.Heisnotonlyagoodpianist,butalsoagoodsingeraswell.22.ThisprettyactresskeepsappearinginTVserialsrepeatedly.23.Asarule,studentsareusuallynotallowedtotakebooksoutofthisreading-room.24.Accordingtothespeaker,itisobviousthattheresponsibilitysystemhashelpedtoincreaseproductionandhehasnodoubtaboutit.25.Onereasonwhypeoplearewellinformedinthiscountryisbecauseofthefactthattherearemanynewspaperswhichcaneasilybeboughtorsubscribedto.26.Statisticsshowthatinthedecadefrom1980to1990enrollmentsatthisschool

44doubled:in1990thereweretwiceamanystudentsasin1980.27.Therearesomanyinexperiencedunskilledworkerswithouttraininginaparticularjobthatproductionofthefactoryhasbeenaffected.28.Thereareabout50patientsorsointhisward,amongwhommanyarebeinggivenacupuncturetreatment.29.HisnameiscalledJamesWilliams.30.Whateverhedoes,heworksseriouslywithgreatcare,anddoeshisbestsoastodoitwell.Ⅵ.Rewritethefollowingsentences,emphasizingthemainideaeach:1.Huang,whoisovertwometrestall,isthetallestmanoftheteam.2.Socialposition,reputation,evenlifeitself,andfriends,werenolongerinterestingtohimafterhewentbankrupt.3.Hedecidedtotakethejob,anditwassomethingunexpected.4.Chinawillnotbethefirsttousenuclearweaponsunderanycircumstances.5.Yangalonecandothework,andtherearetwentystudentsintheclass.6.Chinahaschangedagreatdealasaresultofreformandtheopenpolicyduringthepast14years.7.ShewasthefirstChinesewomanwhohadwonagoldmedalforfigureskatinginaninternationalcontest,accordingtonewspaperreports.8.AnattemptwasmadebyRoberttodoallthethingsthatthesailormembersofthecrewusuallydidwhileservingasacabinboyontheship.9.Mrs.Jones,thefamouswriter,wasamonghisneighbours.10.Thestudentswerepatientlyhelpedbytheirteachersandgoodprogresswasmadebythem.11.Sheoftenhelpsmanycomradesinherclasstoimprovetheirpronunciation.12.Therearefewmistakesinthelanguageofthecomposition,butitisnotverygood,becausethecontentisnotinteresting.Ⅶ.Rewritethefollowingpassage,givingthesentencessomevarietyinlengthandstructure:1.IgotupalittlelaterthanusualonSundaymorning.Iwashedandhadaquickbreakfast.ThenIstartedgoingtotowntobuythedictionaryrecommendedbytheteacher.AttheschoolgateIsawLiPing.Iaskedhimifhewasgoingtotowntoo,andhesaidthathewas.Sowedecidedtogotogether.Allthebuseswerecrowded.Wehadtowaitforalongtimeatthebusstopbeforewecouldgetonabus.Anhourlaterwegotoffthebusatabusystreet.Therewerethreebookstoresthere.Wewenttothefirstoneanddidn'tfindthedictionary.Thenwewenttothesecondoneandtheshopassistantsaidthatthedictionarywassoldout.Ifinallyboughtthedictionaryatthethirdbookstore.AfterthatLiPingandIwenttootherstoresandboughtvariousthings.Wereturnedtoschooljustintimeforlunch.

452.LudwigvanBeethovenovercamemanypersonalproblemstoachieveartisticgreatness.Hewasamajorcomposerofthenineteenthcentury.HewasborninBonn,Germany,in1770andfirststudiedmusicwithacourtorganist.Hisfatherwasexcessivelystrictandgiventoheavydrinking.Hismotherdiedwhenhewasayoungman.Hewasnamedguardianofhistwoyoungerbrothers.Hewasappointeddeputycourtorgannistatasurprisinglyearlyagein1782.Healsoplayedtheharpsichordandtheviola.HewenttoViennain1792tostudymusicunderHaydn.Heremainedunmarried.Hewastroubledbyfinancialworriesthroughouthisadultlife.Hewasalsocontinuallyplaguedbyillhealth.Hebecamedeafin1818becauseofanearinfection.Hiswritingofmusiccontinued,however,inspiteofthishandicap.GoethesaidthatBeethovenhadan"untamedpersonality."Thismayhavebeentrue,buthismusicshowsgreatdisciplineandcontrol.PartFourTheParagraphAparagraphisaunitofthought;itisatonceaunitinitselfandpartofalargerwhole,thatis,theessay.Aparagraphislikeamini-essay;itshouldbeunified,coherentandwelldeveloped.Aparagraphisunifiedwhenallthesentencesintheparagrapharefocusedononecentralthoughtoronasingletopic;whenthewriterwishestointroduceanewthoughtortopic,heshouldbeginanewparagraph.Aparagraphiscoherentwhenitdevelopsnaturallyandsmoothly,andonesentenceleadslogicallytoanother.Therearemanywaystodevelopaparagraph,forexample,byprocess,bycauseandeffect,bycomparisonandcontrast,etc.Paragraphsvaryinlength.Inashortexpositoryessayofabout600words,theaverageparagraphmaybeabout100words,orbetweenfourandeightsentences.Ultimately,thelengthoftheparagraphdependsonitstopic,itspositionintheessayanditsroleinthedevelopmentofthethesisstatement.Paragraphsinbooksareusuallylongerthanthoseinnewspapers.Alongparagraphexpressesacomplexidea,andashortonemakesamajortransition,anemphaticstatement,orasummary.Anexperiencedwritervariesthelengthofhisparagraphstoavoidmonotony.Ⅰ.EffectiveParagraphs1.UnityUnityofaparagraphisconcernedwithitscontent.Ifallthesentencesintheparagraphleadtoonecentraltheme,theparagraphisunified.Thecentralthemeisusuallysummarizedinwhatiscalledthetopicsentence.Itoftenappearsatthebeginningoftheparagraph;however,itmayalsobefoundinthemiddleorattheendofaparagraph.

46    Oneofthecentralpreoccupationsoftheartsandhumanitiesistheobservationofhumanbeings.Paintersandsculptorscreateimagesofthehumanform;writerstellstoriesorcomposepoemsabouthumanexperience;musicalartistsgivemelodiccontourstothehumanspirit;historiansandphilosopherspondertheessentialqualitiesofhumancivilizationandnature.Andinourownlives,inourownways,wespendagreatdealofourenergyandattentiononourfellowcreatures,beinginfamiliesandotherkindsofrelationships,observingpeoplewithcuriosityandinterestinthecourseoftheday,thinkingaboutandformingourowncharacter-decidingwhatkindofpersonwewishtobe-aswegrow.-DonKnefelWenowhave,asaresultofmodernmeansofcommunication,hundredsofthousandsofwordsflungatusdaily.Weareconstantlybeingtalkedat,byteachers,preachers,salesmen,publicofficials,andmotion-picturesoundtracks.Thecriesofadvertiserspursueusintoourveryhomes,thankstotheradio-andinsomehousestheradioisneverturnedofffrommorningtonight.Dailythenewsboybringsus,inlargecities,fromthirtytofiftyenormouspagesofprint,andalmostthreetimesthatamountonSunday.Wegooutandgetmorewordsatbookstoresandlibraries.Wordsfillourlives.Inthefirstparagraphthefirstsentenceisthetopicsentence,whereasinthesecondparagraph,itisthelastsentence.Sometimes,thetopicsentenceisnotstatedexplicitlybutisimplied.Inthefollowingparagraph,allthedetailscontributetoonetheme-whattheroomlookslike.Thoughwithoutatopicsentence,theparagraphisunified.    Theroomislocatedonthefifthfloorofthehighbuilding.Onethirdofitstotalfloorspaceistakenupbyadoublebed.Facingit,inthecornerbehindthedoor,standsacupboardloadedwithpots,bowls,dishes,bottles,andbagsofriceandflour.Adeskcompletelyfillsthegapbetweenthebedandthewallwiththewindow.Behindthedeskisachair,theonlyoneintheroom;anditalmosttouchestheboxesandtrunkspiledagainstthewallontheoppositeside.-Student2.CoherenceCoherenceofaparagraphisconcernedwithitsform,oritsorganization.Thesentencesinaparagraphshouldbearrangedinaclear,logicalorder,andthetransitionsshouldbesmoothandnatural.Asaresult,thereaderfindsiteasytofollowthewriter'strainofthoughtandunderstandwhatheistalkingabout.    Thereissomefeelingnowadaysthatreadingisnotasnecessaryasitoncewas.Radioandespeciallytelevisionhavetakenovermanyofthefunctionsonceservedby

47print,justasphotographyhastakenoverfunctionsonceservedbypaintingandothergraphicarts.Admittedly,televisionservessomeofthesefunctionsextremelywell;thevisualcommunicationofnewsevents,forexample,hasenormousimpact.Theabilityofradiotogiveusinformationwhileweareengagedindoingotherthings-forinstance,drivingacar-isremarkable,andagreatsavingoftime.Butitmaybeseriouslyquestionedwhethertheadventofmoderncommunicationsmediahasmuchenhancedourunderstandingoftheworldinwhichwelive.-MortimerJ.AdlerThisparagraphiscoherent.Thewriterbeginswithastatement,andthenhegoesontoexplainwhathavemadesomepeoplefeelthat"readingisnotasnecessaryasitoncewas"-radioandtelevisionhavealmostreplacedthefunctionsoftheprintedmatter.Whatfollowsfurtherexplainshowwatchingthetelevisionandlisteningtotheradioservesomeofthefunctionsofreading.Butthewriterdoubtswhethertheappearanceofmoderncommunicationsmediahasreallypromotedourunderstandingoftheworld,whichheexpressesinthelastsentence,thetopicsentenceoftheparagraph.3.TransitionCoherencemaynotbeperfectevenifthewriterarrangeshissentencesinaclear,logicalorder.Hehastousegoodtransitionssothatonesentencerunssmoothlytoanother.Thefollowingwaysmayhelpthewritertoproduceafluentparagraph:A.Usingparallelstructures;B.Repeatingwordsorwordgroups;C.Usingpronounstorefertonounsinprecedingsentences;D.Beingconsistentinthepersonandnumberofnounsandpronouns,andthetenseofverbs.Inthefollowingparagraph,notehowthewritermakesuseofallthesewaystoachievecoherence.    Americansarequeerpeople:theycan'tplay.Americansrushtoworkassoonastheygrowup.Theywanttheirworkassoonastheywake.Itisastimulant-theonlyonetheyarenotafraidof.Theyusedtoopentheirofficesatteno'clock;thenatnine;thenateight;thenatseven.Nowtheynevershutthem.EverybusinessinAmericaisturningintoanopen-all-day-and-nightbusiness.Theyeatallnight,danceallnight,buildbuildingsallnight,makeanoiseallnight.Theycan'tplay.Theytryto,butcan't.Theyturnfootballintoafight,baseballintoalawsuit,andyachtingintomachinery.Theycan'tplay.Thelittlechildrencan'tplay;theyusemechanicaltoysinstead-toycranes,hoistingtoyloads,toymachineryspreadingatoyindustrialdepressionofinfantiledullness.Thegrownuppeoplecan'tplay;theyuseamechanicalgymnasiumandaclockworkhorse.Theycan'tlaugh;theyhireacomedianandwatchhimlaugh.-StephenLeacock

48E.Usingtransitionalexpressions1)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforspatialdevelopment:abovebeforemehereontheleftacrossfrombelowinthedistanceontherightadjacenttobeyondnearbyoppositetoalsofurthernexttoontopofupdownclosetobeneathunderaroundneartoover2)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforchronologicaldevelopment: first,second,etc.sooneventuallyinthemeantimethenthereuponatthesametimenextthereafterafteraninterval0nowafterpresentlylaterafterwardsomewhatlaterfinallyatlast3)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforanalyticaldevelopment: first,second,etc.nowforthispurposebutasaresultfurthermorefinallyatlastmoreoveralsoconsequentlylikewiseanotherforexamplenextyetforinstanceonthecontraryonceinadditioninsummarysuchinthiscaseontheotherhandthenotherwiseinconclusionthusinclosingtherefore4)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforcomparisons:anotherfuthermoremoreoverequallyimportanttoo,alsoatthesametimebesidesthenaccordinglyinfactinadditiontolike,likewise

49similarlyjustas...sointhesameway5)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforcontrasts:onthecontrarydifferentfrom/incontrastontheohterhandtodespiteinspiteofyet,butwhereasunlikeneverthelessnotonly...butalsohere...thereyearsago...todaythis...thattheformer...thelatterthen...nowthefirst...whereasthesecondsome...othersontheonehand...ontheotheronce...nowⅡ.WaysofDevelopingParagraphs1.PlanningaParagraphParagraphsneedtobeplanned.First,thinkofthetopicorthemeormainidea,andexpressitinacompletesentence(topicsentence).Thenthinkofthedetailsorexamplesorfactsthatmaybeusedtosupportorexplainthemainidea.Arrangetheminlogicalorder,andyouhavearoughplanoftheparagraph.Anoutlinemaybehelpfultobeginners.Supposeyouaretowriteaparagraphonphilately,andyourtopicsentenceis"Philatelyisaninterestinghobby",youmayhavethefollowingpoints:(1)Therearebeautifulpicturesonpostagestamps;(2)Thereareportraitsofhistoricalfiguresonthem;(3)ItisalwaysadelighttogetastampIhaveneverseenbefore;(4)IcanlearnsomethingbylookingatthestampsIhavecollected.Onreadingthefourpointsagain,youmayfindthatthelastpointhadbetterbemadethefirst.Nowyoucanbegintowrite.Hereisaparagraphdevelopedfromtheaboveoutline:    Philatelyisaninterestinghobby.EverytimeIopenmyalbumsandlookatthestampsI'vecollectedovertheyears,Ilearnsomethingnew.Onmanyofthemareprinteddrawingsorpicturesofrarebirds,animals,treesorflowers.Underamagnifyingglasstheylookverybeautiful,andtheyhelptoincreasemyknowledgeofnature.Onotherstampsthereareportraitsofhistoricalfigures,suchasQuYuanandDr.SunYatsen,GeorgeWashingtonandChesterW.Nimits.WheneverIseeanunfamiliarname,Iwilltrytofindsomeinformationaboutthepersonbyconsultinganencyclopaedia.InthiswayIhavecometoknowsomethingaboutquiteafewpeoplewhoarefamousforonereasonoranother.SomeofmyfriendsandrelativeswhoknowIaminterestedinstampsoftenshowmeusedenvelopes.IfIseeastampwhichI

50haveneverseenbeforeorIhaven'tgotyet,Iwillaskthemtogiveittome,anditseemsthattheyarealwayskindenoughtoobligeme.Itisalwaysadelighttoaddanewstamptomycollection,andthemorestampsIhave,themoreinterestedIaminphilately.-StudentInthisparagraphastatementisgivenfirstanditisfollowedbysomeexplanations.Thestatementexpressestheeffectandtherestoftheparagraphexplainsthecauses.Thisisoneofthemanypossiblemethodsfordevelopingaparagraph.2.DevelopmentbyTimeIntellingastoryorrecountinganevent,theeasiestandclearestwayistodescribethingsinorderoftime:earlierthingsarementionedbeforelaterthings,thefirstthingfirstandthelastthinglast.Thismethodisalsocalledchronologicalsequencing.    JamesMurraywasborninScotlandin1873,thesonofavillagetailor.Hewenttoaparishschool,butheleftat14andheeducatedhimselfwithpertinacity.Helovedknowledgeandhelovedtoimpartit.Hebecameaschoolmaster;helearnedlanguageafterlanguageandwasalivetogeology,archeologyandphonetics,aswellastolocalpolitics.HehadtoleaveScotlandbecauseoftheillnessofhisfirstwife,andhebecameabankclerkinLondon.Bysheerenergyofscholarship,andwithoutbenefitofanyuniversityeducation,hemadehimselfindispensabletotheotherremarkablephilologistsofhisday.Hereturnedtoschool-teachingandliveda72-hourdayfortherestofhislife.FortheinvitationtoeditwhatbecametheO.E.D.wasonethathecouldnotrefuse.Atfirsthecombineditwithhisschoolwork;laterhemovedtoOxfordanddedicatedhimselftobuildingthebestsortofmonument-bestinthatitwasnotamonumenttohimself,andbestinthatitwasnotamonumenttosomethingdeadbutrathertosomethingliving:theEnglishlanguage.-ChristopherRicks    MyheartgavealeapwhenIheardtheannouncementthatourtrainwouldsoonarriveatitsdestination-Beijing.Likeotherpassengers,Ibegantocollectmythingsandputmymug,towel,atlas,apples,andotherthingsintomybag.Tothetuneofabeautifulsongthetrainpulledintothestationandgentlystoppedbyaplatform.Iwalkedoutofthetrainandwascarriedforwardbythestreamofpeopleintoanundergroundpassageandthenintoabighall.AsIsteppedoutofthestation,IwasdazzledbythebrightautumnskiesofBeijing.ThoughIhadbeenonthetrainformorethanthirtyhoursandspentansleeplessnight,Ididn'tfeeltiredatall,andIbelievedmydaysinBeijingwouldbeassunnyastheskies.-Student

51Thesetwoparagraphs,onetellingthestoryofaperson'slife,theotherdescribinganeventthattookplaceinafewminutes,followachronologicalarrangement,anditiseasyforthereadertounderstandwhatistoldinthem.3.DevelopmentbyProcessWhenyouhavetoexplainhowsomethingisdone,youusuallyfollowachronologicalsequenceandgiveastep-by-stepdescription.Asthestepsmustoccuroneafteranother,theexactorderinwhichtheyarecarriedoutismostimportant.Ingivinginstructions,imperativesentencesandsentenceswiththeindefinitepronounyouasthesubjectareoftenused.Thepresenttenseshouldbeusediftheinstructionsarestillapplicable.    Onceyouencounterapersonwhohasstoppedbreathing,youshouldbeginimmediatelytodomouth-to-mouthbreathing.First,placethevictimonhisbackandremoveanyforeignmatterfromhismouthwithyourfingers.Thentilthisheadbackwards,sothathischinispointingup.Next,pullhismouthopenandhisjawforward,pinchhisnostrilsshuttopreventtheairwhichyoublowintohismouthfromescapingthroughhisnose.Thenplaceyourmouthtightlyoverthevictim's.Blowintohismouthuntilyouseehischestrise.Thenturnyourheadtothesideandlistenfortheoutrushofairwhichindicatesanairexchange.Repeattheprocess....-Ahandbook    Itisnecessaryforapersontoknowhowtopostaparcel,sincealmosteveryonehasrelativesandfriendslivingfarawayandhemayliketosendthemsomething.Differentobjectsarepackedindifferentways.Thingslikebottlesofmedicineandwatchesshouldbeputintowoodenboxestoavoidbreakage.Afteryouhavepackedtheobjects,putdownyouraddressandthatoftheaddresseeonthewrapping.Givetheparceltothepostalclerkforhimtocheck.Hewillthengiveyouaformtofillin.Havingfilledintheform,yougiveittogetherwiththeparceltotheclerk.Hewillweightheparcelandtellyouhowmuchyoushouldpay.Youpaythemoneyandgetareceipt.Besuretokeepyourreceiptuntilyouaresurethattheaddresseehasreceivedtheparcel.Ifanythingwrongshouldhappentoyourparcel,youcanshowthereceipttotheclerkandasktobereimbursed.-Student4.DevelopmentbySpaceBeforewebegintodescribeaplace,whetheritisalargecountryorasmallroom,wehavetodecideontheorderinwhichtonamethedifferentpartsordetails.Forthisweshouldfindoutthespacerelationshipsbetweenthemandarrangeourdescriptionaccordingly.Itwouldonlyconfusethereadertomentiontheminahaphazardway.

52    Inthemiddleoftherectangular-shapedcourtyardstoodthreemagnoliatrees,allinfullbloom.Alittlegirlwashoppingamongthem,nowgazingatabud,nowcollectingfallenpetals.Underoneofthetreesstoodherparents,who,whilekeepinganeyeonher,wereexaminingthemilkwhiteblossomswithgreatinterestandadmiration.Infrontofanothertreeayoungcouple,freshandbrightastheflowers,wereposingforapicture.Atoneendofthecourtyardagroupofyoungstershadgatheredbehindanartistpaintingaflourishinglimb,whichlookedsocharmingandrealthataboystoopedtosniffatahalf-openflower.Attheoppositeendafewelderlymenandwomenstoodadmiringtheleaflessfloweringtreesandthepeoplelookingatthem.-StudentHerethewriterstartsfromthetreesinthemiddleofthecourtyard,orthecentreofthescene.Thenhedescribesthepeopleunderandaroundthetrees(thegirl,herparentsandtheyoungcouple),andafterthatthepeoplefartherfromthetreesatbothendsofthecourtyard(theartistandtheyoungstersbehindhim,andtheelderlymenandwomen).Inshort,hemoveshiscamerafromthecentertothesurroundingareas.    Mr.Cook,arenownedAmericanhistorian,arrangesthebooksonhisbookshelvesinauniqueway.Intheupperrighthandcorner,therearebooksaboutthedevelopmentoftheearlycoloniesinNewEnglandandtheWarofIndependence.Rightunderthemcanbefoundbooksontheslavetrade,theplantationsystemandthegrowthofthesouthernstates.TheleftsideoftheshelfcontainshundredsofbooksconcerningsubjectsoftheWestwardMovement,Indianculture,thecowboys'contributionstoAmericansocietyandtheGoldRushinCalifornia.Fromthedescriptionabove,onecanseethatMr.CookregardshisbookshelvesasamapoftheU.S.andarrangeshishistorybooksaccordingly.Itisodd,butitisconvenient.-StudentThisparagraph,whichdescribesthearrangementofbooks,issimpleandclear.Thepositionsofthebooksaredescribedinorderthatiseasytofollow:firstfromtheupperrighttothelowerright,andthentotheleft.5.DevelopmentbyExampleorGeneralizationSupportingatopicsentencewithexamplesorillustrationsmakesageneralstatementspecificandeasytounderstand.Anillustrationisacase,aspecimen,aninstance.Vividillustrationslightupabstractideasandmakethemclear,interesting,memorable,orconvincing.Illustrationsmaybeasingleexampleoraseriesofexamples.    Thistermseveralusefulandinterestingcourseshavebeenoffered.AnIntroductiontoEuropeanCulture,forinstance,givesusalotofbackgroundknowledgeofthe

53historyofEuropeanphilosophy,literature,andarts.Fromtimetotimeweseeslideshowsoffamouspaintingsandheartapesoffamouspiecesofmusic,andtheymakethelecturesallthemoreinteresting.AmericanSocietyandCultureisanothercoursethatattractsalargeaudience.Theteacher,whovisitedtheUnitedStatesnotlongago,discussesnewtrendsandchangesinAmericanlifeaswellasAmericanhistoryandtraditions.Weliketheseandothercoursesverymuch,becausetheyhelpusnotonlytoimproveourEnglishbutalsotobroadenourvision.-StudentInthisparagraphtherearetwoexamplesthatexplainwhycertaincoursesare"usefulandinteresting"asissaidinthefirstsentence.Thefollowingparagraphdevelopsitscontrollingsentencewithaseriesoffactsinvolvingwell-knownpeople.Theseenablethewritertomaketheabstractkeyidea,"persistentinvestigation,"concrete.Theyalsoadddramaticqualitiesthatmaketheinformationinteresting.Youmaynoticethatitisnotalwaysnecessarytosay"forexample"or"forinstance"whenanexampleisgiven.    Knowledgeoftenresultsonlyafterpersistentinvestigation.AlbertEinstein,afteralengthyexaminationofthecharacteristicsofmatterandenergy,formulatedhisfamousTheoryofRelativity,whichnowactsasabasisforfurtherresearchinnuclearphysics.Usingplastercastsoffootprints,fingerprints,andstraystrandsofhair,adetectivepertinaciouslypursuesthecriminal.AfteryearsofworkAnnieJumpCannonperfectedtheclassificationofthespectraofsome350,000stars.Investigationsintothecausesofpoliohaveprovideduswiththemeansforpreventionandcureofthisdreadeddiseaseonlyaftermanyyearsofresearch.Asstudents,wetooaredeterminedinourinvestigationtofind,retain,andcontributetothestoreofhumanknowledge.-EarlRudolphThefollowingparagraph,whichismainlydescriptive,containsmanydetails.Itstartswithatopicsentence.Thendetailsaregiventobackuptheopeningstatement.Thisisthegeneral-to-specificpattern.    Mylittleniece,aten-month-oldbaby,isthemostlovelychildIhaveevenseen.Herfaceislikearedappleandhereyesarelikebrightstars.Whenyoucarryherinyourarms,shelikestoputherarmsaroundyourneck.Allthegrownupsinthefamilyloveherverymuchandoftentrytomakehersmile.Butquiteoftenitisshewhomakesuslaugh.OnceIwinkedatherandshesmiled.WhenIdiditagain,shewatchedmeattentively.Thenshetriedtoimitate.Whileweclosedoneeyetowink,shehadtoclosebotheyesatthesametime,andthenquicklyopenedthemagain.Andthatwasherwaytowink.Weallburstintolaughter.Whenwelookedatheragain,shewasstaringatus,puzzled,asifshewasasking:"Whatareyoulaughingat?"

54-StudentAnotherpossiblearrangementofdetails(orexamples)inaparagraphisfromthespecifictothegeneral.Thedetailsarementionedfirst,andthegeneralstatement,whichmaybethetopicsentence,comesattheendoftheparagraph,summarizingthemainideaoftheparagraph.    Whetheryoudoordonotopenagiftinthepresenceofthegiver;whetheryoushouldorshouldnotturntheplateovertolookatthemaker'ssymbolontheback;whetheryouputyourcoatonbeforeorafteryouleavethehost'shouse;whetheryoueatasquietlyorasnoisilyaspossible;whetheryoucarryonaconversationduringameal;whetheryouwalkinfrontoforbehindaseatedperson;whetheritisafriendlyoranoffensivegesturetoputyourhandonthearmofthepersonwithwhomyouaretalking-theseandathousandotherquestionsaremattersofculturaldefinition.Noneofthemisinherentlyrightorwrong,andnoneisgoodorbadmannersexceptasasocietydefinesitso.-InaCorinneBrownDetailsorexamplesareusuallyarrangedinclimacticorder:theleastimportantcomesfirst,followedbyothersinorderofincreasingimportance.    ItwasatypicalRussianwinter.Thefirstsnowstormhadturnedeverythingwhite.Thewindwashowling,swirlingandtumblingoveravastlandoficeandsnow,freezinganddestroyingwhateverstoodinitsway.Aragged,misshapenarmywasstaggeringandstrugglingdesperatelyforsurvival,cold,hungryanddecreasinginsizeeveryday.Theyearwas1812.ThearmywastheremnantsofNapoleon'sexpeditionaryforcewhichwaswithdrawingfromRussiaafterreceivingitsworstdefeat.ThewarwithRussiaturnedouttobeafiascoforNapoleonandhadadevastatingeffectonhiscareer.-StudentSuchaclimacticsequenceisfollowedinparagraphsdevelopednotonlybydetailsorexamplesbutalsobycomparisonandcontrast,bycauseandeffect,etc.6.DevelopmentbyComparisonandContrastThemethodofcomparisonandcontrastisoftenused.WecomparethepresentandthepastofChina,theculturesoftheEastandtheWest,ChineseandEnglish.Bycomparingandcontrastingwemaygetaclearerpictureofthings.Strictlyspeaking,acomparisonpointsoutthesimilaritiesbetweentwoormorepersonsorthingsofthesameclass,whileacontrast,thedifferencesbetweenthem.Inpractice,however,comparisonandcontrastoftenappeartogether,becausepeoplegenerallycomparetwothingsthataresimilarincertainwaysanddifferentin

55others.Therearetwomajorwaysoforganizingparagraphsofcomparisonandcontrast.Onewayistoexamineonethingthoroughlyandthenexaminetheother.Inthisway,theaspectsexaminedinthetwothingsshouldbeidenticalandinthesameorder.Thismethodiscalledblockcomparisonorblockcontrast.Theotherwayistoexaminetwothingsatthesametime,discussingthempointbypoint.Thismethodiscalledalternatingcomparisonoralternatingcontrast.Thefollowingparagraphisagoodexampleofalternatingcomparison.    Thesamequalitiesthatmakepeoplegoodhouseguestsmakethemgoodhospitalpatients.Goodhouseguestscanexpectareasonableamountofserviceandeffortontheirbehalf,andhospitalpatientscanalso.Guestshavetoadjusttowhatisforthemachange,andcertainlyhospitalpatientsmustdothesame.Nooneappreciatesacomplaining,unpleasant,unappreciativehouseguest,andthehospitalstaffisnoexception.Houseguestswhoexpectvastchangestobemadefortheirbenefitarenotpopularforlong.Certainlynursesandotherpersonnelwiththeirroutinesfeelthesamewayaboutpatientsintheircare.Justashouseguestsmustmakeadjustmentstoenjoytheirvisits,sopatientsmustmakeadjustmentstomaketheirstaysreasonablypleasantandsatisfyingunderthecircumstances.-RobertFriedmanAlternatingcontrastisusedwhenyouwanttopointoutseveraldifferencesbetweentwothingsorpeoplewithoutdiscussingthemingreatdetail.Youmerelypointoutaspecialfeatureofoneitemandthenstatehowtheotheritemdiffersfromitinthataspect.Thefollowingparagraphisanexampleofthismethod.  Thetelevisionwesternofseveralyearsagodiffersgreatlyfromthewesternoftoday.Tenyearsago,forexample,theswindlerorbankrobberinawesterncouldbeidentifiednotbythecrimeshecommittedsomuchasbythecoloroftheclothinghewore-whichwasblack.Todaythetelevisionwesternrevealsthevillainbymannerismsandpersonality.Atonetime,everywesternhadasuperhuman,invincible"goodguy"withwhomtheviewerscouldidentifybecausehetoolivedoutonthefarm.Currently,thecentralfiguresofthewestareaveragepeoplewhomayliveonamiddleclassstreetinanypartofthecountry.Theyarecharacterslikethebusdrivers,mailclerksandaccountantswholivenextdoortoyouinsuburbia.Atnighttheycomeinoffthehorsestoridethetelevisionrange.Theybecomepersonswhorespectothers,drinkandsmokeonlyjustabit,andareablenotonlytooutshootthe"badguy",butalsotooutsmarthimwithgoodcommonsense.-RonSengalBlockcomparisonissuitablewhenthewriterwantstotreatpointsofsimilarityindepth.Inthiswayeachpointisdrawnoutanditsrelationshiptoanotherpointismadeclear.Thistypeofcomparisonisoftenusedwhenthepointsofsimilaritydiscussedarenotmanybutcomplex,andrequiremuch

56explanation.HereisaparagraphthatfirstpointsoutallofthecharacteristicsthatthewriterwantstonameaboutUlyssesS.Grant,andthenmentionsalltheparallelitemsinthelifeofRobertE.Lee.AlthoughUlyssesS.GrantandRobertE.LeewerefierceadversariesduringtheCivilWar,theirlives,bothmilitaryandnonmilitary,hadagreatdealincommon.GrantdescendedfromafamilywhosemembersparticipatedintheAmericanRevolution.HereceivedhiscommissionofsecondlieutenantfromWestPointandservedintheSpanish-AmericanWar.HewaslatersummonedbyPresidentLincolntoassumecommandoftheUnionForcesduringtheCivilWar.AftertheCivilWar,Grantsufferedfinancialproblemsandwasforcedtodeclarebankruptcy.LeealsodescendedfromafamilywhichengagedintheAmericanRevolution.He,too,receivedhiscommissionfromWestPointandlaterfoughtinMexicoduringtheSpanish-AmericanWar.HisfameasamilitarystrategistduringtheCivilWar,whenhewasthecommanderoftheConfederatearmies,iswellknown.Althoughitisnotalwayspointedoutbyhistorians,he,likeGrant,hadfinancialdifficultiesaftertheCivilWarandwascompelledtodeclarebankruptcy.BysecuringapostaspresidentofWashingtonCollege,hewasabletoavoidadditionalpoverty.-GordonSacrisThemethodusedintheaboveparagraphcanalsobeappliedtoaparagraphofcontrast.    Thereisanessentialdifferencebetweenanewsstory,asunderstoodbyanewspapermanorawire-servicewriter,andthenewsmagazinestory.Thechiefpurposeoftheconventionalnewsstoryistotellwhathappened.Itstartswiththemostimportantinformationandcontinuesintoincreasinglyinconsequentialdetails,notonlybecausethereadermaynotreadbeyondthefirstparagraphbutbecauseaneditorworkingongalleyproofsafewminutesbeforepresstimelikestobeabletocutfreelyfromtheendofthestory.Anewsmagazineisverydifferent.Itiswrittentobereadconsecutivelyfrombeginningtoend,andeachofitsstoriesisdesigned,followingthecriticaltheoriesofEdgarAllenPoe,tocreateoneemotionaleffect.Thenews,whathappenedthatweek,maybetoldinthebeginning,themiddle,ortheend;forthepurposeisnottothrowinformationatthereaderbuttoseducehimintoreadingthewholestory,andintoacceptingthedramatic(andoftenpolitical)pointbeingmade.-OttoFriedrichThereisaspecialformofcomparison-analogy.Analogyistracingastrikinglikenessbetweenunlikethings.    Electricityistransferredfromoneplacetoanotherinmuchthesamemanneraswater.Awaterpipeperformsthesamefunctionasalengthofwire.Thepipecarries

57watertoitspointofuseinthesamemanneraswirecarrieselectricitytoitspointofuse.Ablownfuseresultsfromthesamethingasaburstwaterpipe.Bothgiveoutduetoextremepressureappliedtothewallsofthecarrier.Aswitchistoelectricitywhatafaucetistowater.Bothofthemcontroltheflowofthesubstance.Sinceelectricityandwaterhavesomecommonproperties,understandingthejoboftheplumberwillhelpunderstandingtheworkoftheelectrician.-JohnBrowerAnalogiesareespeciallyhelpfulinexplainingabstractideas,fortheyrelateideasthatcannotbeexperiencedthroughthesensesofsight,smell,hearing,touch,ortaste,toasenseexperience,thusmakingtheideaseasytounderstand.    Someoldpeopleareoppressedbythefearofdeath...Thebestwaytoovercomeit-soatleastitseemstome-istomakeyourinterestsgraduallywiderandmoreimpersonal,untilbitbybitthewallsoftheegorecede,andyourlifebecomesincreasinglymergedintheuniversallife.Anindividualhumanexistenceshouldbelikeariver-smallatfirst,narrowlycontainedwithinitsbanks,andrushingpassionatelypastrocksandoverwaterfalls.Graduallytherivergrowswider,thebanksrecede,thewatersflowmorequietlyandintheend,withoutanyvisiblebreak,theybecomemergedinthesea,andpainlesslylosetheirindividualbeing.Themanwho,inoldage,canseehislifeinthisway,willnotsufferfromthefearofdeath,sincethethingshecaresforwillcontinue....-BertrandRussellHereBertrandRusselldrawsananalogybetweenaperson'slifeandariver,whichareentirelydifferentthings.Heistryingtoexplainsomethingdifficulttounderstand-anindividualhumanexistence-intermsofsomethingfamiliar-ariver,andtheanalogymakeshisexplanationinterestingandimpressive.7.DevelopmentbyCauseandEffectInourdailyconversation,questionswithwhyareoftenaskedandanswered.Thisshowsthatcausalanalysisisverycommon;itissomethingwearefamiliarwith.Soundreasoningorlogicisnaturallythemostimportantqualityofanycausalanalysis.Butitisnotalwayseasytoexplaincausesandeffectsclearlyandlogically.Onereasonforthisisthataneffectmayhavemanycausesandacausemayhavemanyeffects.Sowemustbethoroughinourdiscussionandcarefulinourselectionofdetails.Therearetwobasicwaysoforganizingparagraphsdevelopedbycauseandeffect.Thefirstmethodistostateaneffectanddevotetherestoftheparagraphtoexaminingthecauses.Forexample,thetopicsentenceis:"Inthepastfewyears,highereducationhasbecomelessimportanttoyoungpeoplethanitwaspreviously."Thisisaneffect.Itshouldbefollowedbyadiscussionofthecausesofthiseffect,suchasthepressure

58offiercecompetition,betteropportunitiesinthejobmarket,muchoftheknowledgetaughtinuniversitiesandcollegesbeingout-dated,andsoforth.Thesecondmethodistostateacauseandthenmentionorpredicttheeffects.Supposethetopicsentenceis:"MoreandmorefertilelandinChinaistakenupbynewbuildings."Intherestoftheparagraphtheeffectsofthisdevelopmentshouldbementioned,suchasthereductionofthegrainoutput,increasingenvironmentalproblems,toomanypeasantsmovingintothecities,etc.    Onemightwonderwhy,aftertheNormanConquest,Frenchdidnotbecomethenationallanguage,replacingEnglishentirely.ThereasonisthattheConquestwasnotanationalmigration,astheearlierAnglo-Saxoninvasionhadbeen.GreatnumbersofNormanscametoEngland,buttheycameasrulersandlandlords.Frenchbecamethelanguageofthecourt,thelanguageofthenobility,thelanguageofpolitesociety,thelanguageofliterature.ButitdidnotreplaceEnglishasthelanguageofthepeople.TheremustalwayshavebeenhundredsoftownsandvillagesinwhichFrenchwasneverheardexceptwhenvisitorsofhighstationpassedthrough.-PaulRobertsInthisparagraph,theopeningsentenceraisesthequestionofwhytheNormanConquestdidnot,asmighthavebeenexpected,makeEnglandaFrench-speakingcountry.ThissentencestatesaneffectorresultoftheConquest.Thesentencesthatfollowdevelopthecontrollingideabyexplainingthecauses.    ThissurgeofdemandforoilwillsoonbegintosendshockwavesthroughtheAmericaneconomyandtransportationsystem.Theimpactofthesetremorscanalreadybeanticipated:totheconsumertheysignaltheendofalongloveaffairwiththecar,andtoDetroittheyofferanearlywarningthatits1985growthaimsaredangerouslyunrealistic.Unlessweexerciseforesightanddevisegrowth-limitspoliciesfortheautoindustry,eventswillthrustusintoacrisisthatwillleadtoasubstantialerosionofdomesticoilsupplyaswellastheindependenceitprovidesuswith,andalevelofpetroleumimportsthatcouldcostasmuchas$20to$30billionperyear.Moreover,wewouldstillbedepletingourremainingoilreservesatanunacceptablerate,andscramblingforpetroleumsubstitutes,withenormouspotentialdamagetotheenvironment.-StewartUdallInthisparagraph,thetopicsentencestatesacause,andthenthewriterpredictswhateffectsthesurgeofdemandforoilwillbringtoAmericansociety.8.DevelopmentbyClassificationToclassifyistosortthingsintocategoriesaccordingtotheircharacteristics.Weclassifymanythings:trees,rivers,cities,companies,collegestudents.Wegroup

59thingsaccordingtotheirsimilaritiesanddifferences.Ifweclassifyrivers,weseparatethemintowideones,narrowones,longones,shortones,deepones,shallowones.Applesmaybeclassifiedaccordingtosize,placeoforigin,color,price,orquality.Essentialtoagoodclassificationisparallelism.Ifweclassifytypesofsports,wemayspeakoftrackandfieldevents,swimming,ballgames,gymnastics,etc.Ifweclassifiedsportsintojumping,ballgames,running,floorexerciseandbackstroke,wewouldviolateparallelism,forballgamesshouldbeconsideredageneralcategory,whilejumpingandrunningaresubcategoriesofthetrackandfieldevents;gymnasticsisageneralcategory,andfloorexerciseaparticularformofit.Inshort,inagoodclassificationthepartsmustbeparallel,andtheyshouldadduptothewholesubject.Inthefollowingparagraph,theauthordividesbookownersintothreemaintypesandthendescribeseachofthem.    Therearethreekindsofbookowners.Thefirsthasallthestandardsetsandbest-sellers-unread,untouched.(Thisdeludedindividualownswoodpulpandink,notbooks.)Thesecondhasagreatmanybooks-afewofthemreadthrough,mostofthemdippedinto,butallofthemascleanandshinyasthedaytheywerebought.(Thispersonwouldprobablyliketomakebookshisown,butisrestrainedbyafalserespectfortheirphysicalappearance.)Thethirdhasafewbooksormany-everyoneofthemdog-earedanddilapidated,shakenandloosenedbycontinualuse,markedandscribbledinfromfronttoback.(Thismanownsbooks.)-MortimerJ.AdlerNowlet'sstudytwomoreparagraphs:        AccordingtoXiaoLi,thefifteenstudentsofhisclassfallintothreegroups.Sevenofthemworkhardandstudywell.Theyalwaysgetgoodmarksinexaminationsandareoftenpraisedbytheteachers.Licallsthem"goodstudents."Themonitor,thesecretaryoftheYouthLeaguebranch,andthecaptainoftheclassvolleyballteam,arequickinfindingoutwhattheirfellowstudentsareinterestedinorwhattheyshoulddoasacollective.Theyalwaysorganizeproperactivitiesatthepropertime,soLicallsthem"goodorganizers."Fourotherstudentsareverykindtotheirclassmates,alwaysreadytolendthemahelpinghand.Theyhelptocleantheclassroomandthecorridorevenwhentheyarenotonduty.Lisaysthattheyare"goodfellows.""Whataboutyourself?"someoneaskshim."I'magroupbymyself-agoodobserver."-Student        Everyeducatedpersonhasatleasttwowaysofspeakinghismothertongue.Thefirstisthatwhichheemploysinhisfamily,amonghisfamiliarfriends,andonordinaryoccasions.Thesecondisthatwhichheusesindiscoursingonmorecomplicatedsubjects,andinaddressingpersonswithwhomheislessintimately

60acquainted.Itis,inshort,thelanguagewhichheemployswhenheis'onhisdignity,'asheputsoneveningdresswhenheisgoingtodine.-J.B.GreenoughandG.L.KittredgeThewriterofthefirstparagraphistryingtobehumorous.Hiswayofclassifyinghisclassmates,thoughunscientific,issuitedtohispurpose.Thesecondwriterdiscussestwowaysofspeakingone'smothertongue,Thephrase"atleast"impliesthattheremaybeotherways.9.DevelopmentbyDefinitionSometimes,toavoidconfusionormisunderstanding,wehavetodefineaword,term,orconceptwhichisunfamiliartomostreadersoropentovariousinterpretations.Therearethreebasicwaystodefineawordorterm:togiveasynonym,touseasentence(oftenwithanattributiveclause),andtowriteaparagraphorevenanessay.Weareusingthefirstmethodwhenwesay,forinstance,"Tomendmeanstorepair,"or"Afellowisamanoraboy."Inkmaybedefinedinasentence:"Inkiscoloredwaterwhichweuseforwriting."Butasynonymorasentencecannotgiveasatisfactorydefinitionofanabstracttermwhosemeaningiscomplex.Wehavetowriteaparagraphoranessaywithexamplesornegativeexamples(whatthetermdoesnotmean),withanalogiesorcomparisons,withclassificationorcause-and-effectanalysis.Whenwegiveadefinition,weshouldobservecertainprinciples.First,weshouldavoidcirculardefinitions."Democracyisthedemocraticprocess"and"Anastronomerisonewhostudiesastronomy"arecirculardefinitions.Whenwordsaredefinedintermsofthemselves,noone'sunderstandingisimproved.Second,weshouldavoidlonglistsofsynonymsifthetermtobedefinedisanabstractone.Whenaparagraphbeginswith"Byimagination,Imeanthepowertoformmentalimagesofobjects,thepowertoformnewideas,thegiftofemployingimagesinwriting,andthetendencytoattributerealitytounrealthings,situationsandstates,"thereaderknowsthewriterispickingupwordsandexpressionsfromadictionary,indiscriminatelyblastingaloadofabstracttermsatthereaderinthehopethatonewillhit.Third,weshouldavoidloadeddefinitions.Loadeddefinitionsdonotexplaintermsbutmakeanimmediateappealforemotionalapproval.Adefinitionlike"BystateenterpriseImeanhighcostandpoorefficiency"isloadedwithpejorativeemotionalconnotation.Conversely,"BystateenterpriseImeanoneofthegreatblessingsofdemocraticplanning"isloadedwithfavorableemotionalconnotation.Suchjudgementscanbevigorousconclusionstoadiscussion,buttheyleadtoargument,notclarification,whenofferedasdefinitions.Thefollowingparagraphsaregoodexamplesofclearandobjectivedefition.    A"liberatedwoman"issimplyawomanwhocontrolsherownlife,ratherthanallowingittobecontrolledbyotherpeople,traditions,orexpectations.A"liberated

61woman"canbefoundpursuinganylineofwork,includinghousework,ornoworkatall.Shemayormaynotbemarried;shemayormaynothavebornechildren.Shemaybelongtoanyrace;shemayhaveattainedanyage.Shemaybepoororwealthy,educatedorilliterate.Sheneedhaveonlyonetraitincommonwithher"liberatedsisters":shemakesherownchoices,whethertheybethecolorsonherwallsortheadvanceddegreessheseeks.Sheactsofherownvolition,responsibletoherself,andnotoutoffearofwhathermother,lover,orneighbormightsay.-KlarnerW.Harp    Akachinadollisasmall,carved,wooden,humanlikerepresentationofthesupernaturalbeingsworshipedbytheHopiIndians.Kachinasarenotgods:astheirnamedenotes,Kaforrespectandchinaforspirit,theyarerespectedspiritsofthedead,ofmineral,plant,bird,animal,andhumanentities.Kachinasarenotgods,butrathertheyareintermediariesormessengerstothegods.InthepolytheisticHopisociety,allplantsandanimals,aswellassomeinanimatethings,havespiritswhichtheHopivisualizeinhumanform.WhenaHopigoestogatheryuccarootstouseasshampoo,hepraystothespiritofthefirstplanthefindsandpassesitbygatheringthesecondone.Whenhegoeshunting,hepraystothespiritofthegameandapologizesforhavingtotakeitslife.Thusthespiritsofmen,animals,andplantsarethekachinasmostoftencarvedintokachinadolls.-LaDeanMcConahay10.DevelopmentbyaCombinationofMethodsWehavediscussedquiteafewmethodsfordevelopingparagraphs.Sometimesonlyoneofthemisusedinaparagraph,butoftentwoorthreeofthemareusedinthesameparagraph.Writersmayfinditnecessarytouseacombinationofmethodsinordertopresenttheirideasinanimpressiveandconvincingmanner.    Kin-tayoftentoldKizzystoriesabouthimself.HesaidthathehadbeennearhisvillageinAfrica,choppingwoodtomakeadrum,whenhehadbeensetuponbyfourmen,overwhelmed,andkidnappedintoslavery.WhenKizzygrewupandbecameamother,shetoldhersonthesestories,andheinturnwouldtellhischildren.Hisgranddaughterbecamemygrandmother,andshepumpedthatsagaintomeasifitwereplasma,untilIknewbyrotethestoryoftheAfrican,andthesubsequentgenerationalwendingofourfamilythroughcottonandtobaccoplantationsintotheCivilWarandthenfreedom.-AlexHaleyTwomethodsareclearlyseeninthisparagraph:developmentbytimeanddevelopmentbycauseandeffect.

62    TheEasternreligiousmovements[intheUnitedStates]aremadeupalmostexclusivelyofwhite,educated,middle-andupper-middle-classyoungpeople.Mosthaveatleastbeguncollege,althoughsomehavedroppedoutafterayearortwo.Menandwomenseemtoparticipateinfairlyequalnumbers,butmencontroltheleadershipgroups.Thereisnopredominanceofanyparticularregionalbackground,althoughmoreofthedevoteesseemtocomefromurbanthanfromruralareas,probablybecausethemovementsaregenerallybasedincities.-HarveyCoxThisparagraphismainlydevelopedbymeansofdetail:sentences2-4givesomedetailsexplainingthefirstsentence,whichisageneralstatement.Atthesametime,thereisclassificationintheparagraph.Thedevoteesarecomposedofyoungpeoplestudyingatcollegeandthosewhohavedroppedout,menandwomen,peoplefromcitiesandpeoplefromruralareas.ExercisesⅠ.Unity1.Identifythetopicsentenceineachofthefollowingparagraphs.(1)Theforestisasanitaryagent.Itisconstantlyeliminatingimpuritiesfromtheearthandtheair.Treescheck,sweep,andfilterfromtheairquantitiesoffilthy,germ-ladendust.Theirleavesabsorbpoisonousgasesfromtheair.Rootsassistindrainage,andabsorbimpuritiesfromthesoil.Rootsgiveoffacids,andtheseacids,togetherwiththeacidsreleasedbythefallen,decayingleaves,haveasterilizingeffectuponthesoil.Treeshelptokeeptheearthsweetandclean,andwaterwhichcomesfromaforestedwatershedislikelytobepure.Manyunsanitaryareashavebeenredeemedandrenderedhealthybytreeplanting.(2)ShewasanoldwomanandlivedonafarmnearthetowninwhichIlived.Allcountryandsmall-townpeoplehaveseensucholdwomen,butnooneknowsmuchaboutthem.Suchanoldwomancomesintotowndrivinganoldworn-outhorseorshecomesafootcarryingabasket.Shemayownafewhensandhaveeggstosell.Shebringstheminabasketandtakesthemtoagrocer.Thereshetradesthemin.Shegetssomesaltporkandsomebeans.Thenshegetsapoundortwoofsugarandsomeflour.Afterwardsshegoestothebutcher'sandasksforsomedog-meat.Shenevervisitswithanyone,andassoonasshegetswhatshewantsshestartsforhome.(3)Theneedforhumanestudies,bothinthemselvesandforscientistsandprofessionalmen,isgreaterthaniteverwas.Ininternationalaffairsandinaworldwherewehavealreadyreachedthepointwherewecanannihilateourselves,theproblemthatwefacewillcertainlynotbesolvedbybetterandbetterweaponsinthehandsofopposingarmednations.Theywillbesolvedbyabetterunderstandingofmen,byapubliceducatedandenlightenedenoughtosupportthatdiplomacy.Until

63thatsolutionappears,ourgovernmentsmustcontinuetoarmandtodevelopweaponsagainsttheidioticpossibilityofwar,butouronlyhopeofalong-termpeacecomesnotfrombetterweapons,butfromhumaneagreementbetweenmenandnations.2.Supplyatopicsentenceforeachofthefollowingparagraphs:(1)...Itistheroadwhichdeterminesthesitesofmanycitiesandthegrowthandnourishmentofall.Itistheroadwhichcontrolsthedevelopmentofstrategiesandfixesthesitesofbattles.Itistheroadthatgivesitsframe-worktoalleconomicdevelopment.Itistheroadwhichisthechannelofalltrade,and,whatismoreimportant,ofallideas.Initsmosthumblefunctionitisanecessaryguidewithoutwhichprogressfromplacetoplacewouldbeaceaselessexperiment;itisasustenancewithoutwhichorganisedsocietywouldbeimpossible,thustheroadmovesandcontrolsallhistory.(2)...Adogwillfollowhismasteranywhere,butacatkeepstothehouseitisusedto:andevenwhenthehousechangeshands,thecatwillremainthere,solongasitiskindlytreatedbythenewowners.Acatdoesnotseemtobecapableofthepersonaldevotionoftenshownbyadog.Itthinksmostofitsowncomfort,anditsloveisonlycupboardlove.(3)...OnlylastyearIwitnessedwhatmighthavebeenafatalaccidentontheBeijing-ChengdeRoad.IwasmotoringupfromBeijing;andasInearedChengde,Icameuponthewreckageoftwocarsontheroad.Thesmashhadbeencausedbyacarcomingdown,whichsweptroundasharpcornerateightykilometresanhourandcrashedintoacarcomingup.Happilynoonewaskilled;butseveralwerebadlyinjured,andthetwocarswerewrecked.Todriveatsuchaspeeddownatwistingmountainroadissimplycourtingdisaster.(4)...Red,forexample,isthecoloroffire,heat,bloodandlife.Peoplesayredisanexcitingandactivecolor.Theyassociateredwithastrongfeelinglikeanger.Redisalsousedforsignsofdanger,suchasstopsignsandfireengines.Orangeisthebright,warmcolorofleavesinautumn.Peoplesayorangeisalivelycolor.Theyassociateorangewithhappiness.Yellowisthecolorofsunlight.Peoplesayitisacheerfulcolor.Theyassociateyellow,too,withhappiness.Greenisthecoolcolorofgrassinspring.Peoplesayitisarefreshingcolor.Ⅱ.Coherence1.Readthefollowingparagraphcarefully.Then(1)underlinethecontrollingidea;(2)crossoutthesentencesthatdonothelptodevelopthecontrollingidea;and(3)pointoutthetransitions.Oncepeoplewereverymuchafraidofghosts.Theirfearledthemtodevelopelaborateritualstowardoffencounterswiththedead.Forexample,sinceprimitivepeoplebelievedthatghostscouldcapturetheirspiritatfunerals,theycarriedwoodenimagesofthemselvesinthehopethattheghostswouldbefooledintocarryingofftheimages.Imageshavebeenpopularwithpeoplefromprimitivetimesuntiltoday.Oncepeoplebelievedthattakingapictureofsomeonewouldrobthepersonofhisorher

64soul.Itispossible,too,thatthetraditionofsittingupwiththedeadcomesfromabeliefthatghostsescapeinthenight.Certainlytheritualoflayingtombstonesisderivedfromasuperstitionaboutthedead.Peopleoncebelievedthatstonespiledontopofagravewouldkeepthedeadperson'sghostfromescapingandhauntingtheliving.Eventuallythenumberofstonesdiminisheduntilonlyonestone,thetombstone,wasleftasareminderoftheancientsuperstition.2.Listedbelowareacontrollingideaandninesentencesthatdevelopthecontrollingidea.Renumberthesentencestoarrangetheminwhatyouthinkisthebestorder;thencomposeaparagraph,usingthecontrollingideaasyourfirstsentence.Thecontrollingidea:SinceIbeganlivinginanapartmentandgoingtoschool,mybiggestproblemhasbeenthehousework.(1)Cookingmyfoodisabiggerproblem.(2)Theworstproblemisdoingmylaundry.(3)Cleaningtheapartmentisnottoobad;althoughittakestimeawayfrommystudies;atleastwhenIfinishtheapartmentlooksnice.(4)Sometimesthefoodisburned,sometimesitisnotcookedenough,andsometimesIhavenotmeasuredcorrectly,sothefoodtastesterrible.(5)ShoppingformyfoodismoredifficultbecauseIdon'tknowtheEnglishnamesofmanyfoods,andoftenIhavetospendextratimeaskingforhelp.(6)Thelaundromatisfarfrommyapartment,andIwastemuchvaluabletime.(7)Ihaveneverhadtocookbefore,andusuallytheresultsarediscouraging.(8)MostlyIamembarrassedasIsitinthelaundromatwithallthewomen,andsoIwaituntilallmyclothesaredirtybeforeIdothishorribletask.(9)Ialsohavetroublewiththecomplicatedinstructions,sooccasionallyIendupwithpinksocksorashirtthatistoosmall.Ⅲ.Transition1.Studythefollowingparagraphs,andpointoutthetransitionalexpressionsused.(1)AsfarbackasIcanremember,Ihaveoftencomeclosetoseriousinjuryordeath.WhenIwassixyearsold,Inarrowlyescapeddeathforthefirsttime.Iwasthenillwithsomeminorrespiratoryailmentforwhichthesimplestcurewassulfa.Thedoctor,havingnoknowledgethatIwasallergictothedrug,prescribedsulfatablets.Shortlyaftergivingmeapill,mymotherreturnedfromworktofindmegaspingforbreath.Shecalledthedoctorwhohurriedbacktomyhome.Hesavedmylifebyadministeringoxygen.Notlongafterthatincident,Iswallowedachickenbonewhichbecamelodgedinmythroat.Iwasrushedtothehospitalemergencywardintimetosavemylife.WhenIwaseleven,Iwasbittenbyadog.AsIlookback,Irecalledthatthewoundwasnotaspainfulastheseriesofshotswhichfollowed.Now,havingallthesenarrowescapesbehindme,Iconsidermyselffortunatetobealivetoday.(2)Therecanbelittlequestionthatoneoftheturningpointsinthetwentiethcenturywasthegreatstockmarketcrashof1929.Therearemanyreasonsforthecrash,

65includingthefactthatmanypeoplehadboughtstocks"onmargin,"thatis,bypayingonlyafractionoftherealcostinthehopethatthestockswouldgoupandtheywouldmakeaprofit,whereasmanyofthemwentdownandtheycouldn'tcovertheirlosses.Whydidthestocksgodown?Onereasonwassimplepanic:peoplegotscared,andbegantosell.Becausemanysold,priceswentdown.Thiscausedotherstosell,andasaresultpriceswentdownstillfurther.InafewmonthspaperprofitsmeltedawaylikeiceinJuly,fortuneswerelost,andpurchasingpowerdroppedsharply.Becausepeoplestoppedbuying,businessgenerallycollapsed,causingmorefailuresandfewermarkets,sothatfactoriessloweddownorcloseddown,morejobswerelost,andthegreatdepressionwasunderway.2.Choosefromthefollowingtransitionalexpressionsandputthemintheblanksintheparagraphs.(1)forexample;infact;also;furthermore;notonly...butalso...;inadditionTeachersofforeignlanguagesshouldbeextremelywell-qualifiedinordertocarryouttheirdutiesproperly.______,ateachershouldpossessaminimumofagraduatedegreefromacertifiededucationschoolorinstituteifheistoteachhighschoolorbelow.Besidestheacademicdegree,teachersshouldnotconsiderteachingonlyasanoccupationforearningmoney;theyshouldalsobeinterestedinteaching.Itwas______necessarythatteachersbeknowledgeableintheirmajorfields,______theyshould______beskillfulaswell.______,thelanguageteachermustknowthetargetlanguagewellenoughtobeimitatedbyhisstudents.Proficiencyinthetargetlanguageincludesfourskills:understanding,speaking,reading,andwriting.Ateachershould______knowthelinguisticfactsofthelanguageofthestudentsinordertounderstandtheproblemstheywillhaveinlearningthetargetlanguage.______theteachermustbefamiliarwithaudio-lingualtechniques.Knowingallthiswillhelpthestudentstolearncorrectlyandquickly.(2)then;if;when;because;eventhough;firstFormanycenturiesJavaneseculturehasbeeninfluencedbyAnimismandHinduism.______newreligionsaregrowingamongthepeople-theMoslem,Catholic,andProtestantreligions-manypeoplefeelthattraditionalceremoniesareanobligationforaJavanese.______theydon'tfulfilltheirobligation,theybelievethatbadluckwillcometothemortotheirfamily.______myfianceandIdecidedtomarry,myfamilyencouragedustohaveatraditionalJavaneseweddingceremony,andweagreed.______atraditionalJavaneseweddingissocomplicated,itneedsplentyoftimeforpreparation.______wehadtodecidehowmanypeoplewouldbeinvitedfromoutsideofthehousingcomplex:myfriendsfromwork,myhusband'sfriends,myparents'friendsfromchurchandfromothercommunities.Peoplefromthehousingcomplexareautomaticallyinvited.______,Juneisapopularmonthforweddings,wehaddifficultyfindingarentalhallwhichwouldhold800people...

663.Drawarrowstoshowwhatthepronounsinitalicsreferto:(1)ThenoblesofPersia,inthebosomofluxuryanddespotism,preservedastrongsenseofpersonalgallantryandnationalhonour.Fromtheageofsevenyearstheyweretaughttospeakthetruth,toshootwiththebow,andtoride;anditwasuniversallyagreedthatinthelasttwooftheseartstheyhadachievedamorethancommonproficiency.Themostdistinguishedyouthswereeducatedunderthemonarch'seye,practisedtheirexercisesinthegateofhispalace,andwereseverelytrainedinthehabitsoftemperanceandobedienceintheirlongandlaboriouspartiesofhunting.(2)FerdinandandIsabella,informedofthereturnanddiscoveriesoftheiradmiral,awaitedhimatBarcelonawithhonourandmunificenceworthyofthegreatnessofhisservices.Thenobilitycamefromalltheprovincestomeethim.Hemadeatriumphalentryasaprinceoffuturekingdoms.TheIndiansbroughtoverasalivingproofoftheexistenceofnewracesinthesenewly-discoveredlands,marchedattheheadoftheprocession,theirbodiespaintedwithdiverscolors,andadornedwithgoldnecklacesandpearls.FerdinandandIsabellareceivedColumbusontheirthrone,shadedfromthesunbyagoldencanopy.Theyroseupbeforehim,asthoughhehadbeenaninspiredmessenger.Theythenmadehimsitonalevelwiththemselves,andlistenedtothecircumstantialaccountofhisvoyage.Attheendofhisrecitalwhichhabitualeloquencehadcoloredwithhisexuberantimagination,thekingandqueen,movedtotears,fellontheirkneesandrepeatedtheTeDeum,athanksgivingforthegreatestconquesttheAlmightyhadyetvouchsafedtosovereigns.Ⅳ.ChronologicalOrder1.Studythefollowingexpressionsoftenusedindescribingchronologicalrelations:now;nowadayswhen;before;after;while;duringbetween______and______in_____(year)since_____later;earlier;formerly;etc.attheturnofthecentury(decade)etc.inthefirsthalfofthecentury,etc.inthe1900's,etc.atbirth;inchildhood;ininfancy;inadolescence;asanadult;inadulthood;inoldage;atdeathsimultaneously;simultaneouswith;atthesametimeas;theformer;thelatterprevious;previously;priortofirst;second;etc.inthefirstplace;inthesecondplace,etc.;tobeginwithnext;then;subsequently;inthenextplaceinconclusion;finally;lastly;intheend

672.Combinethepairsofsentencesusingoneofthefollowingwords.Insomecasestheverbformhastobechanged.after;while;before;when(1)Don'ttalk.Sheissinging.(2)Thisformofcrimeceased.Thelawwaspassed.(3)Themanfellasleepintheauditorium.Thelecturerspokeaboutavoidingboringtopics.(4)Tomwasleavingtheroom.Hebroughtsomewatertohissister.(5)Thetraindeparted.Wereachedthestation.(6)Shefelldown.Shewasgettingoffthebus.3.Putthefollowingwordsintheblanks.when;while;as;before;afterFrankwasdefinitelynotexpectinganyvisitorstohisroomthatafternoonandindeedhehadjustbeguntosnoozeinthemildafternoonsunshine______someonetappedlightlyonthedoor.______Frankcouldrespondtotheknock,thehandleturnedandtwochildrensidledin.______thefirst,aslightlygipsy-lookingchildwanderedovertothewindow,theotherleanedoverFrank'sdeskandplacedalargeboxonthetop.Therewasashortsilence,and_____bothchildrenedgedtowardsthedoor.Theysaidnothing,notaword,andFranktoofailedtofindhisvoice;theyhadgone______hecouldprotest.Helookeduneasilyatthebox.4.Arrangethesentencesinlogicalorder:Paragraph1A.Themonkslookedthroughthebooksofthemonastery,andtheserevealedthattherebadbeenaFatherAnselmthereahundredyearsbefore.B.Themonkwentbacktothemonasteryandfoundthereadoorkeeperwhomhedidnotknowandwhodidnotknowhim.C.Themonkhadneverheardalarkbefore,andhestoodthereentranceduntilthebirdanditssonghadbecomepartoftheheavens.D.Othermonkscame,andtheywereallstrangerstothemonk.E.Amonkhadwanderedintothefieldsandalarkbegantosing.F.ThemonktoldothermonkshewasFatherAnselm,butthatwasnohelp.G.Timehadbeenblottedoutwhilethemonklistenedtothelark.Paragraph2A.Secureinitsislandhome,thedodohadlostthepowerofflightsincetherewerenoenemiestofly

68from.B.Thegoatsatetheundergrowthwhichprovidedthedodowithcover;dogsandcatshuntedandharriedtheoldbirds;whilepigsgruntedtheirwayroundtheisland,eatingtheeggsandyoung,andtheratsfollowedbehindtofinishthefeast.C.Mandiscoveredthedodo'sparadiseinabout1507,andwithhimcamehisenemies:dogs,cats,pigs,ratsandgoats.D.Thedodo,theponderouswaddlingpigeon,inhabitedtheislandofMauritius.E.Thedodosurveyedthesenewarrivalswithanairofinnocentinterest.F.By1681,thefat,ungainlyandharmlesspigeonwasextinct.G.Thentheslaughterbegan.5.Writeparagraphsusingthefollowingasthetopicsentences.(1)IrememberthedaywhenIcametothisuniversity.(2)...wasanimportantdayinmylife.(3)OfallthecoursesofferedinChinese/English,Ilike...best.(4)IfIcouldchooseagain,Iwouldmajorin...(5)Iwouldliketoworkin...afterIgraduate.Ⅴ.Process1.Studythefollowingphrasesoftenusedinwritingprocessdescriptions:occurbeforeatthispointbecomeuntilatthesametimehappenwhilebymeansofgrowasthroughtheuseoftakeplaceoncebecarriedoutthenchangeintoassoonas2.Studythefollowingsentencesandputthemtogethertoformaparagraph.TheparagraphshouldgiveaprecisedescriptionofwhatisinvolvedinthemarkingofexaminationpapersinforeignlanguageexaminationsinBritain.(1)Problempapersaremarkedandreturnedtothechiefexaminerforremarking.(2)ItisnotcustomaryinBritaintobeinformedofanexaminationresultsoonerthanabouttwomonthsfromthetimetheexaminationwastaken.(3)Afterthepaperhasbeencompletedbythecandidate,itiscollectedinbytheinvigilator.(4)Thepapersaremarkedinitiallybyasingleexaminer,workingwithclear,predeterminedmarkingguidelines.(5)Inordertosamplethemarkingthechiefexaminerselectsapercentageofthepapersfromallexaminersandmarksthemhimself,orhasthemmarkedbyasecondmarker.(6)Thepapersarethensentbyrecordeddeliverytothechiefexaminer,who

69redistributesthemformarking.(7)Theinvigilatorbundlesthepaperstogetherandplacesthem,countedandlabelled,inanenvelope.3.Writeaparagraphusingthepointslistedbelowandlinkingthemwithexpressionsoftenusedinprocessdescription.Topicsentence:Mothermakesloavesofbreadinthetraditionalway.mixflour/kneaditintodoughinabigbowl/setthedoughinfrontofthefireto"rise"/dividethe"risen"doughupintofourparts/putthepartsintobreadtins/"prog"thetopoftheloavesinaninterestingpatternwithakitchenfork/leavetheminfrontofthefireforawhilelonger/putthemintotheoven4.Writeparagraphstodescribepreciselyhowthefollowingthingsaredone:(1)Howpeopleareadmittedtohospital.(2)Howtomakejiao-zi.(3)Howtoborrowabookfromthelibrary.(4)HowtoprepareaNewYear'sEveparty.(5)HowtotakeatrainattheBeijingRailwayStation.Ⅵ.Space1.Studythefollowingexpressionsfordescribingspacialrelationships:whereinwhich;towhich;fromwhich;etc.under;over;inside;beside;ontopof;etc.along;through;asfaras;etc.north;northern;south;southern;etc.totheleft;totheright;tothenorth;etc.attheback;infront;inthemiddle;etc.adjacentparallelrectanglecorrespondingtoparalleltosemicircledistanceperpendiculartoslopemidpointplanespaceinterioroppositesurfacediagonaloverlappingverticaledgepyramidhorizontallimitexteriorintersection2.WriteadescriptionofTiananmenSquareusingthefollowingexpressions:

70theGoldenWaterBridgethecloudpillarthereviewingstandtheMonumenttothePeople'sHeroesthemarblebasrelief"ThePeople'sHeroesAreImmortal"ChairmanMaoMemorialHalltheMuseumofChineseHistorytheGreatHallofthePeople3.Hereistheplanofasmallgardenoncampus:图：____________________||H|E||__F_|[B]|_____//||______\\____//_||G|_C__|G[D]||_____|_A__|________|A:GateB:PavilionC:PathD:PondE:FlowerbedF:WoodG:LawnsH:StonebenchesWriteadescriptionofthegarden,makingsurethatyougivethereaderaclearideaofwhatisinthegarden,wherethingsareinrelationtoeachother,andwhatthegardenislikegenerally.4.Hereisabedroom:图：有一张床，床上有棉被，叠得很整齐，靠窗的位置有一张书桌，书桌旁有一个衣柜，房中间位置有一张长的沙发。另外还有一个摆设柜，里面摆放着茶几等工艺品。在靠床的墙壁上挂了一张山水画。Writeadescriptionofit.5.Writeaparagraphusingthefollowingdetails.Beforeyouwrite,arrangethedetailstoachievespaceorder.Youmaywanttodrawadiagrambeforeyoustartwriting.Decidewhereyouarestanding.

71(1)TheBotanicalGardenislarge.(2)Mostoftheflatgroundistakenupbypeachtrees,appletreesandpeartrees.(3)Anattractivepathcutsstraightthroughthegarden.(4)Ariverrunsbesidethepath.(5)Onbothsidesoftheriverarefloweringshrubs.(6)Asmallhillstandsononesideoftheriver.(7)Therearealotofpinetreesontheslopeofthehill.(8)Nearthehill,tuckedintoacorner,thereisachildren'splaygroundwithswings,seesawsandmodelvehicles.(9)Oneofthepleasantfeaturesoftheparkisthatitisentirelysurroundedbytrees.6.Writeaparagraphtodescribeeachofthefollowingplaces:(1)astreetyouknowwell(2)yourhomevillage(3)yourfavoritereadingroomintheschoollibraryⅦ.ExampleandGeneralization1.Studythefollowingexpressionsformakinggeneralizationsandgivingspecificdetails:forexampleforinstanceforonethingtoillustrateinoneinstanceinotherwordsasfollowsletmeillustrateletmeciteasproofinsubstantiationtosubstantiateasanillustrationinoneinstanceinthisinstanceasanexampletake______forexampleconsider______forexampleinpracticeaccordingtostatisticsaccordingtostatisticalevidence

72generallygenerallyspeakingonthewholealleveryneveralways2.Inawell-writtenparagraphofdetailandexample,allthefactssupportthetopicsentence.Pickouttheirrelevantmaterialinthefollowing:(1)Thetopicsentence:I'mfascinatedbymygrandmother.Supportingevidence:A.Mygrandmotherisabout90thisyear.B.Shewasbornintoawell-to-dourbanfamily.C.Sheseemsnevertorequiretheservicesofadoctor.D.Shehasanabidinginterestincollectingpostcards.E.Shedoesnothavemuchsenseofhumor.F.Shebelievesineverything:festivals,news,TVads,success,andallthegods.G.Shelikestoeatfruit.H.Shehatesdogs.I.Shelikesthecolorofastrawberry.J.Shetakesawalkinthegardeneveryday.(2)Thetopicsentence:MalechauvinsmisevidentinTVcommercialadvertisements.Supportingevidence:A.CommercialsarenewinChinacomparedtothoseindevelopedcountries.B.Televisionsets,likeair-conditioners,areseenasluxurygoodsinChina.C.TherearetwofemaleimagesinChineseTVcommercials:traditionalwomenbusywithhouseholdchoresand"modernwomen"whobelievethatpleasureisthemostimportantthinginlife.D.InTVads,"modernwomen"usuallyinvitetheirboyfriendtobuythempresents.E.AChinesesayinghasitthatwhenamangetstothetop,allhisfamilymembersandrelativesgettherewithhim.F.OneseesinaTVadayoungmaninnicely-pressedWestern-styleclothessittingonacouchreadinganewspaper,whilehisbeautifulwifepullsoffhis

73socks.G.Chinesemenhavegotnicknames,like"qiguanyan"(henpeckedhusbands)or"mofanzhangfu"(modelhusbands).H.Menincommercialsareconfident,career-orientedandenergetic.Atableofdeliciousfoodpreparedbytheirwivesisalwayswaitingforthem.I.Chinesecommercialsareprovidingastageforwomen.J."Modernwomen"appearwiseincommercialsbecausetheyknowhowtodependonmenbutevadeconventionalduties.3.Onthebasisofthefollowinginformation,makeageneralizationabout:a)Japaneseworkers;B)Beijing'senvironment.(1)A.Japaneseworkerslikeworkbetterthananythingelse.B.In1985,Japaneseworkersworkedaneverageof2168hoursayear.Bycomparison,peopleinBritainworked1952hours,intheU.S.,1924,inWestGermany,1659andinFrance,1643.C.ManyJapaneseworkersfeelthatiftheytakeaweekoff,theywilllosetouchwiththebusinessandfallbehindotherpeople.D.ItisconsideredbadforminmanyofficesinJapantoleavebeforetheboss.Soworkerswillcontinuetoworkuntiltheirbossfinallyputsonhisjacketandheadsoutthedoor.(2)A.DuststormsusedtomakehavocofBeijingforanaverageof20daysayear.Nowthenumberofsuchawfuldaysstandsataround10annually.B.Thevolumeoffallingdustandsuspendedparticlesintheairinthecapitaldeclined19and12percentrespectivelyoverthelastfiveyears.C.Over70percentofthefarmlandaroundBeijingnowenjoysprotectiongivenbythevariousformsoftreebelts.D.Thespeedofthewindoverthefarmlandis30to40percentslower,humidityhasrisen5to15percent,andgrainoutputisgenerally10to20percenthigher.E.Grainoutputinthesameareaincreasedbyoverone-fifthafterthefieldsweresurroundedbytrees.F.GreateffortshavebeenmadeinthepasttenyearstoplanttreesandbuildaforestnetworkaroundBeijing.G.Treesareplantedinanarealargerthanthe33,000hectaresaroundtheMiyunReservoir.4.Paragraphwritingexercises:(1)Doyouthinkyouareanoptimistorapessimist?Writeaparagraphrelatinganoccasionwhenyoubehavedlikeanoptimistorlikeapessimist.(2)Writeaparagraphtodescribeonedayinthelifeofapersonwhohasoneoutstandingcharacteristic:

74ateacherwhoismeticulousaroommatewhoisconsiderateastudentwhoisnervousbeforeanexaminationagirl(boy)whoislazyaclassmatewhoishardworking(3)Writeabouta)apersonwhomyouadmireb)aplacethatimpressedyou(4)Writeaparagraphusingthe"facts-generalization"pattern.Herearesomesuggestedtopics:a)PeopleinBeijingeatwellanddressfashionably.b)Itisusefultolearnasecondforeignlanguage.c)TVandtheVCRareincreasinglyreplacingthecinema.d)Myhometownisundergoingrapidmodernization.Ⅷ.ComparisonandContrast1.Studythefollowingexpressionsoftenusedinmakingcomparisonandcontrast:ToCompare:similartoatthesamerateassimilarlyaslike,alikejustaslikewiseinlikemannercorrespondtointhesamewaycorrespondinglytohave______incommonresemblecommoncharacteristics,etc.resemblancetobeparallelin______almostthesameasbothToContrast:differfromunlikehoweverincontrasttootherwiseinoppositiontostillonthecontraryneverthelessontheoppositesideevensoontheotherhandalarger(smaller)butpercentagethanlessthandifferentfrommorethanalthoughfasterthan,etc.while

752.ReadthefollowingsentencesandindicateiftheyaresentencesofCOMPARISONorCONTRAST.(1)Thoughbothareformsofhumor,comedyisdifferentfromsatire.(2)In2000theworldwillsurelybedifferentfromwhatitistoday.(3)Fashionsinfurniturechangejustasclothingfashionsdo.(4)Buyingacarrequiresasmuchskillassellingone.(5)BadmintionisasimportantasportinIndonesiaasfootballisintheUnitedStates.(6)Thereismorehardworkinwritingthaninphysicallabor.(7)Balletisamoreexhaustingartthangymnastics.(8)"Friendship,"like"love,"isoftendiscussedbutseldomunderstood.3.Writestatementsofcontrasttofitthefollowingpatterns(youmayneedawordoraphrasetocompletethesentence).(1)TVandnewspapersare______inmanywayseventhoughtheiraimsmaybethesame.(2)Soundtravels______through______thanthrough______.(3)Before1880manypeoplediedofsmallpox;______thepercentageofdeathsfromsmallpoxissmalltoday.(4)Somechildrengrow______thanotherchildrenbecauseofnutritionaldifferences.(5)______tolivingonthefarm,livinginthecityisanintensestruggletosurviveinaconcretewasteland.(6)PercapitaearningsinJapan______thoseinSouthKorea.4.Writestatementsofcomparisontofitthefollowingpatterns(youmayneedawordoraphrasetocompletethesentence).(1)Thedevelopmentoftransportationandthedevelopmentofcommunications______inmanyways.(2)AnshanintheNortheastofChinaandPanzhihuaintheSouthwestare______steelcenters.(3)Despitecenturiesofchange,humanbeingsandtheirprimitiveancestorshavemanytraits______.(4)______badminton______tabletennisrequiresalargeplayingarea.(5)AlthoughthelastdaysoftheRomanEmpiremayatfirstappearverydifferentfromthoseoftheUnitedStatestoday,thereareominous______.5.Makeuseofthefollowinginformationandwriteparagraphsofcomparisonandcontrast.(1)Topicsentence:Raisinghouseplantsinvolvesnearlyasmuchcareandknowledgeasraisingchildren.Houseplants:

76A.Raisinghouseplantsinvolvesmuchcareandknowledge.B.Plantsaresentsitivetotheirenvironment.C.Aplantwillgrowfasterandbemuchhealthierifitisraisedinanenvironmentoftender,lovingcare.D.Theownerofhouseplantsmustbewillingtoprovidethebestpossiblecareforhisplants.E.Theownerofhouseplantsmustknowwhichofhisplantsneeddirectsunlightandwhichneedtobekeptinshadyplaces.F.Theownerofhouseplantsmustknowhowmuchwatereachplantrequiresforthebestgrowthandappearance.Children:A:Raisingachildinvolvesmuchcareandknowledge.B:Childrenaresensitivetotheirenvironment.C.Parentsmusthaveabasicknowledgeoftheirchildren'sneedsinordertoprovidewhatisnecessaryfortheirbestphysicalandmentaldevelopment.D.Achildwillbehappierandhealthierifhisparentsloveandnurturehim.E.Achildneedstimeandenergyfromhisparentstoplaywithhim,totalktohim,andtocareforhim.(2)Topicsentence:TheworksofbothErnestHemingwayandWilliamFaulknercontainarichnessofmeaningfulsubstanceandotherqualitieswhichhelpmaintaintheseauthors'placesamongAmerica'sgreatestwriters.Theirwritingstyles,however,areremarkablydifferent.Hemingway:A.Hissentencesareusuallyshort,simple,andstraightforward.B.Hissentencesareremarkablylucid.C.Hedoesn'toverwhelmthereaderwithlong,"purplish"wordsnorwithcomplicatedsentencestructure.D.Muchofwhatheexpressesisconveyedbyunderstatement.Faulkner:A.Hiswritingismuchmoreinvolved.B.Heusesanelaboratestream-of-consciousnesstechniquetorevealthepsychologicalconflictswithinhischaracters.C.Hissentencesareoftenlongandcomplex.D.Sometimeshecarrieshisreaderthroughseveraltimeperiodswithinthesamesentence.6.Writeaparagraphoneachofthefollowingtopics:

77(1)asongfromyourparents'youthandonefromtoday(2)theradioaudienceandthetelevisionaudience(3)theSummerPalaceandthePurpleBambooPark(4)twoofyourfriends(5)the"McDonald"fastfoodrestaurantandaChineserestaurantⅨ.CauseandEffect1.Studythefollowingexpressionsfordiscussingcauseandeffect:soconsequentlythusthereforeaccordinglybecauseofforthisreasonowingtoasaresultsincehenceduetobecauseasaresultofastheresultofsothatresultinso______thattheeffectofthankstotheconsequenceofoutofhaveaneffectonowe______tothereasonforthecauseofItfollowsthatnowthatseeingthatforfearthatsuch______thatsoas_______tomake______possiblemakeitpossible/impossiblefor______to______2.DecidewhetherthefollowingsentencesexpressCAUSEandEFFECTorthingsthathappenedinCHRONOLOGICALORDER.(1)PeterandMarkwenttotheparkyesterday.Theyhadbarbecuethere.(2)FootstepsechoeddowntheemptypathtowardsMary,andshewasafraid.(3)JohnhasaVitaminCdeficiency.Hehasaskindisease.(4)Bobwasverysleepy.Hesatnoddinginhiscar.(5)Therearealoudknockatthedoordownstairs.Theknockwokemeoutofasound

78sleep.(6)Susandidnotfeelwell.Shedidnotturnup.3.Studythefollowinginformation.Intheblankbeforeeachsentence,writeCifitisastatementofCAUSEorEifitisastatementofEFFECT.(1)Topic:MusicintheUnitedStates______APopularmusicshowedadefinitechangeinthe1950s-amovementawayfromthebigbandsoundthathadappealedtothosegrowingupinthe1920s,1930s,and1940s.______BTeenagersbecamemoreaffluentandthushadthemoneytobuyrecordsbyperformerslikeElvisPresleyandRayCharles.______CTheblackpopulationfinallyhadthemoneyinthe1950stosupportthesingersandmusicianstheyhadpreferredforyears.______DAlargeproportionoftheadultwhitepopulationthathadbeenpoorduringthedepressionbegantorebelagainstthesophisticatedlyricsandsoundsofthebigbandmusicians.______EThenewaffluenceofgroupsofpeoplewhohadpreviouslyhadlittlemoneytospendonentertainmentpavedthewayfortheemergenceofgospel,blues,androckmusic.(2)Topic:Tornados______ATornadosareformedwhenwarm,moistairspreadsnorthward,meetingwithcoldairflowingfromthenorthandwestaboveit.______BThemeetingofcoldandwarmairstartsthecharacteristiccircularmotion.______CThecircularmotionquicklybuildsupandbecomesforcefulenoughtotearbuildingsapartanduproottrees.______DNotonlyaretornadosabletomovehugeobjectsbuttheyalsooccasionallydooddthings,suchasstrippingachickenofitsfeathersquickly.(3)Topic:Drunkdrivers______AExcessiveamountsofalcoholcauseonetoloseone'ssenseofresponsibility.______BExcessiveamountsofalcoholslowreactiontimeandseriouslyimpairdepthperception.______CTheinebriateddriverisunabletomakequicklogicaldecisionsandisoftenresponsibleforaccidentscausingseriousinjuriesordeath.______DDrunkdriversaredangerous.______EDrunkdriversposeaseriousthreattothemselvesaswellastoothers.4.Chooseoneofthetopicsbelowandwriteaparagraph.

79CAUSESOF(1)yourheadachesanddepressions(2)theimprovementoftransportationinBeijing(oryourhometown)(3)thesuccessofapersonyouknowwell(4)thefailureofaTVprogramEFFECTSOF(1)lowwagesforteachers(2)multiple-choiceexams(3)collegestudentsdoingpart-timejobs(4)onechildperfamily(5)thesharpincreaseinentrancefeestoparksandmuseumsinBeijingⅩ.Classification1.Studythefollowingexpressionsforclassification:mainkindsofunimportantmajorkindsofinsignificantbasickindssimilarfundamentaldissimilarsignificantcontradictoryimportantopposingprimary,secondaryoppositeminorcontrastingclearlydistinguishableeasilydistinguishedincontestabledifferencesincontestablesimilaritiesclassifydividekindstypesattributesmethodssourcescharacteristicspartsregionsfactorsdivisionsoriginserascategoriesbasestimesclassesqualitiesaspectsclassificationsmutuallyexclusiveaccordingto______withrespectto____________fallsinto______categories______canbedividedinto______classes

802.Studythefollowingwordsanddividethemintogroups,givinganametoeachofthegroups.brotherjumpstronggreengardenweakhouselawyerhealthysoldierforestsingcityvillageintelligentbeautifulbiologythoughtfulsleepdifficult3.Intheblankbeforeeachofthefollowingsentences,writeGifitisastatementofGENERALIZATIONorCifitisastatementofCLASSIFICATION.______(1)Democracyisastateofmind.______(2)Somesportsrequireashighadegreeofeye-mind-handcoordinationasbrainsurgery.______(3)Gamblersfallintoseveralclasses,dependinguponwhattheirstakesare.______(4)Studentsshouldnotbeallowedtosmokeintheclassroom.______(5)ManyaspectsoftheAmericancharactercanbeattributedtotheAmericanfrontier.______(6)UnitedStateshistoryasreflectedbytheconcentrationofpeopleincitiescanbedividedintotwoclearlydistinguishableperiods.______(7)AnumberofforeigncountriesweredirectlyinvolvedinU.S.territorialexpansion.______(8)Awildstallionispowerfulandfierce.______(9)Everyonehasthreekindsof"friends"hewantstoforget.4.Additemstothefollowinglists:(1).Collegestudentscanbeclassifiedaccordingtothefollowingstandards:A)academicachievementB)attitudetowardpolitics,friendship,andsoforthC)_____D)_____E)_____F)_____G)_____H)_____(2).Meansoftransportationcanbeclassifiedaccordingtothefollowingstandards:A)speedB)sizeC)_____D)

81_____E)_____F)_____G)_____H)_____I)_____(3).Vegetablescanbeclassifiedaccordingtothefollowingstandards:A)thosethatcan(can't)toeatenrawB)colorC)_____D)_____E)_____F)_____G)_____H)_____5.Writeparagraphsofclassificationbyexpandingthefollowingoutlines.(1)Topic:MyClassmatesAmongthemare:A)logicalandcriticalthinkersB)attentivereadersC)carefulandlucidwritersD)responsiblecampuscitizensE)sympatheticroommates(2)Topic:MyRoommatesAmongthemare:A)considerateonesB)messyandlazyonesC)bossyonesD)loners6.Writeaparagraphofclassificationoneachofthefollowingtopics:(1)theparksyouhavebeento(2)thebooksyouliketoread(3)themoviesyouhaveseen(4)yourclothes(5)thesportsyouenjoyⅪ.Definition

821.Studythefollowingexpressionsfordefinition:todefinetoexplainindefinitioninexplanationinotherwordsby______ismeanttoclarifytoparaphraseinclarificationformaspectspeciescharacteristicclassmethoddevicepropertytypeconditionkindattributecategory2.Studythefollowingdefinitions.Decidewhicharegoodonesandwhichareinadequate.(1)Famineisextremescarcityoffoodinaregion.(2)Gamblingisawaytomakemoneywithoutworking.(3)Aloomisamachineforweavingcloth.(4)Aproofisaparticularpieceofevidence.(5)Toenlightenistogiveknowledge,andtofreefromignorance,misunderstanding,orfalsebeliefs.(6)Neutralityisastatebetweenwarandpeace.(7)Ahospitalisaplacewhereadoctorworks.(8)Asentryisasoldierpostedtoguardandtokeepwatch.(9)Asearisamarkremainingonthesurfaceofskin.(10)Towalkistomoveeachfootforwardinturn.3.Definethefollowingfromyourownexperienceorobservationintheformofparagraphs.(1)theChinesesaying"showoffone'sskillwithanaxbeforeLuBan".(2)"MasterDongguo"(3)superstition(4)optimism(5)malechauvinism(6)feminismPartFiveTheWholeComposition

83Thebasicaimofawritingcourseistodeveloptheabilitytowritewholecompositions(oressays,theses,papers).Studentsattendingthiscoursearegenerallyaskedtowriteshortcompositionsof500to1,000wordsontheirlives,studies,experiencesandviewsonquestionstheyareinterestedin.Theyareseldomorneveraskedtowritefiction,dramaorpoetry.Inotherwords,theircompositionswillmainlybeprosedealingwithfacts.Inthefollowingpagesweshallfirstdiscussthenecessarystepsinwritingacomposition,andthenthefourcommontypesofcompositionsstudentsshouldlearntowrite.Ⅰ.StepsinWritingaComposition1.PlanningaCompositionOneshouldnotbeginwritingacompositionwithoutsufficientpreparation.Writingislikebuilding.Beforebeginningtobuildahouse,theworkersusuallyhaveaplanbeforethemandhavepreparedenoughmaterial.Awritershouldalsoworkoutaplanandcollectenoughmaterialbeforehewritesthefirstsentenceofhiscomposition.Whenatopicisassigned,thestudentshouldfirsttrytothinkofasmanyrelevantfactsashecanandwritethemdownonapieceofpaper(withoutcaringabouttheformandorderoftheitems).Atthesametime,heshouldtrytofindaproperthesisortheme.Thethesisofacompositionisitsmainpointoritscentralidea.Itistheconclusionthatshouldbedrawnfromthefactstobepresentedinthecomposition.Afterthat,heshouldlookatthelistoffactsagain,eliminatethoseunnecessaryorunimportantones,rearrangetheminalogicalorder,andwriteanoutline.Supposethetopicassignedis"TheSchoolLibrary".Thestudentmightjotdownthefollowingpoints:AlargenumberofusefulbooksAllkindsofdictionariesandreferencebooksThereading-roomsspaciousandquietNewspapersandmagazinesThelibrarianspatientandhelpfulClosedonSundaysandholidaysAlittlecrowdedintheeveningStudentsleavebooksonchairstoreserveseatsVeryfewnewspapersfromabroadStudentsarenotallowedtotakeschoolbagsintotheFirstReading-RoomSeniorswouldnotbeabletowritetheirgraduationpaperswithoutusingthelibraryTeachersgotothelibraryfrequently...Amongthepossiblethesesare:1)Thelibraryisaniceplacetoworkin.2)Thelibraryplaysaveryimportantpartinastudent'slife.3)Theworkofthelibraryneedsimprovement.Oncethethesisisformulated,certainfactsonthelistwillbecomemoreimportant

84thanothers,whileafewmayseemirrelevant.Afterthosesuitableitemsarepickedout,anoutlinelikethefollowingonemaybeprepared:Topic:TheSchoolLibraryThesis:Thelibraryplaysaveryimportantpartinastudent'slife.Outline:Ⅰ.Astudenthastoborrowbooksfromthelibrary.A.Heneedsreferencebooksforhiselectivecourses.B.Hemaywanttoreadnovels,storiesandplays.Ⅱ.Hereadsnewspapersandmagazinesinthelibrary.A.ManynewmagazinesareondisplayintheFirstReading-Room.B.Therearenewspapersfromallprovinces.C.Backnumbersmaybeborrowedatthecounter.Ⅲ.Heneedsthelibraryallthemoreinhisjuniorandsenioryears.A.Thelibraryprovideshimwithbooksforhisresearch.B.Hewouldnotbeabletowritehisgraduationpaperwithoutusingthelibrary2.TypesofOutlinesAnoutlineliketheaboveonesubdividesthecontrollingideaorthesisoftheessayintosmallerparts,whicharethendevelopedintoseparateparagraphs.RomanandArabicnumeralsandlettersofthealphabetaregenerallyusedtonumberandorderideasasinthefollowing:Thesis(controllingidea)Ⅰ.IntroductionⅡ.MainideaA.Sub-ideaB.Sub-idea1.Supportingdetail2.Supportingdetaila.Fact1b.Fact2Ⅲ.Mainidea

85A.Sub-ideaB.Sub-idea1.Supportingdetail2.Supportingdetail3.SupportingdetailC.Sub-ideaⅣ.ConclusionTherearetwocommonlyusedtypesofoutlines:thetopicoutlineandthesentenceoutline.Allentriesinatopicoutlineconsistofnounsandtheirmodifiers,ortheirequivalents,thatis,gerundphrasesorinfinitivephrases,whereastheentriesinasentenceoutlinearecompletesentences.Atopicoutlineisbriefandclear,anditgivesaninstantoverviewoftheentirepaper.Asentenceoutline,ontheotherhand,providesamoredetailedplanofthepaper.Comparethefollowingtwooutlinesforapaperonforeigntrade:ATopicOutlineThesis:Foreigntradeisbeneficialtoandindispensableforallnations.Ⅰ.Introduction:thefoundationofforeigntradeⅡ.ThenecessityofvisibletradeA.LackofcertaincommoditiesB.InsufficiencyofparticularitemsC.ComparativeadvantageincertainitemsD.LatestinnovationsanddifferentstylesofcommoditiesE.TheimportanceofafavorablebalanceoftradeⅢ.Thenecessityofinvisibletrade-exchangeofservicesbetweennationsA.TransportationB.InsuranceC.TourismD.TechnologyⅣ.Conclusion:thepurposeofforeigntradeandtheimportanceofthebalanceofpaymentsASentenceOutlineThesis:Foreigntradeisbeneficialtoandindispensableforallnations.

86Ⅰ.Introduction:theutilizationofdifferenteconomicresourcesandthedevelopmentofdifferentskillsformthefoundationofforeigntradeⅡ.Tradeincommodities(visibletrade)isnecessarybetweennations.A.Nonationhasallthecommoditiesitneeds.B.Anationmaynothaveenoughofcertaincommodities.C.Anationmaysellcertaincommoditiesataprofit.D.Latestinnovationsanddifferentstylesofcommoditiesmaymakeforeigntradenecessary.E.Allnationsstrivetomaintainafavorablebalanceoftradesoastobeassuredofthemeanstobuynecessarygoods.Ⅲ.Exchangeofservicesbetweennations(invisibletrade)ispartofforeigntrade.A.Nationsvieinprovidingtransportationforforeigntrade.B.Prudentexporterspurchaseinsurancefortheircargoes.C.Tourismbringsanationhugeprofits.D.Technologyisalsoexportedandimported.Ⅳ.Conclusion:thepurposeofforeigntradeistoearnmoneyfornecessaryimportsanditisimportanttokeepthebalanceofpayments.Thefollowingareafewrulesforwritingoutlines:(1)Avoidsinglesubdivisions.Ifthereisamajorpointmarked"Ⅰ",theremustbeatleastanothermarked"Ⅱ";ifthereisan"A",theremustbea"B",andsoon.(2)Avoidmixingtypes.Atopicoutlineiswritteninnounphrases,andasentenceoutlineinsentences.Donotmixthesetwotypes.(3)Useparallelstructuresfortheheadingsofthesamerank.Makesuresubheadsoflikerankareofequalimportanceandarerelatedtotheheadingandarrangedinlogicalorder.(4)Makesurethethesisisacompletedeclarativesentenceintheaffirmative;donotuseaquestion,aphraseoradependentclause.3.WritingtheFirstDraftNowthattheoutlineisready,thewritercanbegintowritethecompositionitself.Butitwouldbeover-optimistictopresumethathewillhavenomoretroubleandwillbeabletofinishthewholethingatonestroke.Mostprobablyhewillmeetwithmanydifficultiesintheprocessofwritingandfinditslowandtiringwork.Heneednotbedisappointed,though.Evenanexperiencedwritermayfindithardtoorganizeandexpresshisideaswell.Itisnecessarytowriteafirstdraft,inwhichthereshouldbeenoughspacebetweenlinesforfuturecorrectionsandimprovements.Whilewritingthedraft,thewriterneed

87notbeafraidofdepartingfromtheoutlineatoneplaceoranother.Buthehadbetterstoptorevisehisoutlineorworkoutanewoneifhefindshisoriginaloutlineentirelyimpracticable.4.RevisingtheFirstDraftThisisanimportantstepbutitisoftenneglected.Whenpressedtime,studentswillstartcopyingthefirstdraftassoonasitiswritten.Thustherecannotbemuchimprovement.Ifpossible,astudentshouldwritethefirstdraftoneortwodaysbeforethetimewhenhehastohandinthecompositiontotheteacher.Hewillthenhaveenoughtimeforrevisingthedraft,andbeabletoexamineitmoreobjectively.Whenheiswritingthefirstdraft,hisattentionisfocusedonturninghisideasintowords.Itwillbeonlynaturalthatsomeofhissentencesarenotverywellformedandsomeofhiswordsnotverywellchosen.Itisalsopossiblethatwholeparagraphsarenotproperlyorganized.Atplaceshemaymakegrammarorspellingmistakes.Revision,therefore,isabsolutelynecessary.Nearlyallgoodwritingistheresultofmuchrevision.Whilerevisingacomposition,thestudentshouldkeepinmindthatrevisiondoesnotmeanasimplecorrectionofmistakesingrammarspelling,punctuation,andothermechanics.Thefollowingchecklistmaybeofhelp:Ⅰ.Content:Lookattheessay/compositionasawhole.A.Whatisthetopicoftheessay/composition?Doesthedraftfulfilltheassignment(e.g.modeofdevelopmentortypeofcomposition)?B.Isthethesisclear?Isitsupportedbyenoughfacts(details,examples,reasons,etc.)?C.Isthereirrelevantmaterialthatshouldberemoved?D.Isthelogicsound?Aretheregapsinthelogic?Ⅱ.Organization:Lookatthearrangementofthematerial.A.Doestheintroductoryparagraphleadtothemainpointofthepaper?B.Doeseachparagraphhaveaseparatecentralidea?Doesitrelatetotheessay'smainideaortothepreviousparagraph?Aretherepropertransitionsbetweensections?Aretheparagraphsarrangedinclimacticorder?C.Doestheconcludingparagraphgivethereaderaclearimpressionofwhatthepaperintendstosay?Ⅲ.Sentences:A.Iseachsentenceclearlyrelatedtothesentencethatprecedesitandtothesentencethatfollows?B.Arethereunnecessarysentencesthatmayberemoved?C.Aretherestructural

88mistakes?D.Aretherewordyandredundantsentences?E.Istherevarietyinsentencetype?Ⅳ.Diction:A.Aretherewordsthatarenotappropriateforthetopicorthestyleofthewholeessay(e.g.toocolloquialortooformal)?B.AretherewordsorphraseswhicharedirectlytranslatedfromChinesebutwhichmaymeansomethingdifferentinEnglish?C.AretherecollocationswhichmaybeincorrectbecausetheyaretakenfromChinese(e.g.abigrain)?Thelistdoesnotincludequestionsconcerningmistakesingrammarspelling,punctuation,andothermechanics,becausestudentsaregenerallymindfulofsuchmistakes.5.MakingtheFinalCopyAfterthedraftiscarefullyrevised,acleanfinalcopyhastobemade.Thestudentshouldfollowthespecificationsaboutthemanuscriptformthathisteacherhasgivenhim,orfollowtherulesofmanuscriptformgiveninPartOneofthebookifhisteacherhasnotgivendirectionstothecontrary.Theverylaststepinwritingacomposition,astepthatshouldneverbeforgotten,istocheckthefinalcopy.Indoingsothewriterislikelytofindthathehasmadecarelessmistakesingrammarandspelling,andhemayalsowanttochangeawordhereandthere.Ⅱ.Organization1.SomePrinciplesLikeaparagraph,acompositionmusthaveunity.Allthefactsandalltheideasinanessayshouldcontributetothepresentationofitsthesisorcentralthought.Irrelevantthings,howeverinterestingtheyare,shouldbeexcluded.Aspeakermaybeallowedtodigressfromhismainsubjectforalittlewhile,butawriterisnotgivensuchfreedom.Acompositionconsistsofseveralparagraphs,eachofwhichhasonecentralthought.Theymustbearrangedinsomekindoforder,sothatoneparagraphleadsnaturallytoanothertoformanorganicwhole.Whattheordershouldbedependsonthenatureofthesubject,orthetypeofessaytobewritten.Onepossiblemethodistoarrangetheparagraphsaccordingtotheimportanceoftheideastheyexpress,puttingthemoreimportantafterthelessimportant,andthemostimportantattheendoftheessay,soastobringaboutaclimax.Proportionisasimportanttoanessayasitistoapainting.Mainfactsorideasdeservefulltreatment;minoronesshouldbegivenlessspace.Theessentialpartofanessayis

89thebodyorthemiddlepart.Togivethispartaboutseven-oreight-tenthsofthetotalspacewillbejustright.Thebeginningandtheend,thoughimportant,havetobeshort.2.TheBeginningMost,ifnotall,essaysaremadeupofabeginning,amiddle,andanend.Thebeginning(theintroduction)rousesthereader'sinterestinandsecureshisattentiontothesubjectmatteroftheessayorprovidesnecessarybackgroundinformation.Themiddle(thebody)givesaclearandlogicalpresentationofthefactsandideasthewriterintendstoputforth.Theend(theconclusion)windsuptheessayoftenwithanemphaticandforcefulstatementtoinfluencethereader'sfinalimpressionoftheessayandshowstheimplicationorconsequencesoftheargument.Tothewriterthebeginningisoftenthehardestpartofanessay,becausehehastodecidefromwhatpointtostart,andinwhatdirectiontogo.Thereisnosinglewaytobeginallessays.Thefollowingaresomepossibleapproaches(alltheexamplesmaybeusedasthefirstparagraphofanessayonHitler'sinvasionoftheSovietUnionin1941):(1)AquotationHegel,theGermanphilosopher,says,"Welearnfromhistorythatmenneverlearnanythingfromhistory."Thiswryremarkhasbeenconfirmedtimeandagainbyhistoricalevents,oneofwhichisHitler'sinvasionoftheSovietUnion.HemusthaveutterlyforgottenorwilfullyignoredthegreatdisasterNapoleonbroughtuponhimselfbyattackingRussiaearlyinthenineteenthcentury.(2)FiguresorstatisticsTheattackontheSovietUnionwasthelargestandfiercestofallthatHitlerhadlaunched.Hethrewin190divisions,3,000tanks,over5,000planes,andaltogether5.5millionmen.(3)AquestionorseveralquestionsWhatmadeHitlerdecidetoleaveBritainaloneforthetimebeingandturneasttoattacktheSovietUnion?WhatmadehimsosureofaquickvictoryinthatvastcountrywhereNapoleonhadlostalmostallhistroops?(4)ThetimeandplaceoftheeventtobedescribedOnthemorningofJune22,1941,alongtheentire1,800kilometer-longSovietfrontier,fromtheBaltictotheBlackSea,thefascistGermanforcesattacked.(5)Relevantbackgroundmaterial

90Bythemiddleof1941,HitlerhadoccupiedfourteenEuropeancountries.Allthemanpowerandresourcesofthesecountries,fromFrancetoPoland,fromNorwaytoGreece,wereathisdisposal.Itseemedtohimthatthetimehadcomeforhisgreatestventure-theinvasionoftheSovietUnion.(6)AnanalogyAtraditionalstorydescribesafoolishmanliftingarocktooheavyforhimandhavinghisownfeetsquashed.Hitlerwaslikethatfoolishman,buthewasdifferentinthat,beforehedestroyedhimself,hedestroyedmillionsofotherpeople.(7)AdefinitionFascismcanbedefinedastheuseofbrutalforceinenslavingthepeopleathomeandthepeopleofforeigncountries.Fascismisoppressionandaggression.Thesebeginningsmaybeappropriateforanexpositoryessay.Fornarrativeanddescriptivewritingtherearemanyotherpossibleways,suchasthedescriptionofaperson'sappearance,ofaplace,ofascene,etc.,adialogue,orananecdote.Itisevensometimespracticabletowritetheintroductionafterthemiddleandendoftheessayhavebeenwritten.3.TheEndTheendofanessayisimportantbecauseitisoftenthepartthatgivesthereaderthedeepestimpression.Noteveryessayneedsaseparateconcludingparagraph.Forashortcomposition,thelastparagraphofthebody,eventhelastsentenceofthatparagraph,mayserveastheend,solongasitcangivethereaderafeelingofcompleteness.Acompositionofover1,000wordsmayrequireaconcludingparagraphthatsummarizesthemainpointstohelpthereadertorememberthem.Butifthepointsarearrangedinaclimacticsequence,thelastpoint,whichisthemostimportantone,isgoodenoughtobetheend-anewparagraphwouldonlyweakentheclimax.Concludingparagraphsshouldbeshort,forceful,substantial,andthought-provoking,madeupmainlyofrestatementsorsummariesofthepointsthathavebeendiscussed.Nonewideasshouldbeintroducedinaconcludingparagraph.Sometimesitisgoodtolinktheconcludingparagraphtotheintroductory.If,forinstance,aquestionisraisedintheintroductoryparagraph,ananswershouldbegivenintheconcludingparagraph.Ⅲ.TypesofWriting1.Description

91Descriptionispaintingapictureinwordsofaperson,place,object,orscene.Adescriptionessayisgenerallydevelopedthroughsensorydetails,ortheimpressionsofone'ssenses-sight,hearing,taste,smell,andtouch.Notalldetailsareuseful.Thewritershouldchoosethosethathelptobringoutthedominantcharacteristicoroutstandingqualityofthepersonorthingdescribed,andleaveoutthoseirrelevantones,which,ifincluded,wouldonlydistractthereader'sattentionfromthemainimpressionthewriterwishestogive.(1)DescriptionofapersonIndescribingaperson,thewritershouldnotmerelygivedetailsofhisappearance.Heshouldtrytorevealtheperson'scharacter,thoughts,andfeelings,whichmaybeshowninwhatthepersondoesandsays,orinhowhebehavestoothers.Anditisimportanttograspthecharacteristicfeaturesthatdistinguishhimfromallotherpeople.Thosefeaturesthatheshareswithotherscanbeomitted.Peculiaritiesandidiosyncrasiesofaperson,ifany,shouldbeincludedinthedescription,fortheyusuallyimpressthereaderdeeplyandgivelifetothepersondescribed.ModelsA.KittredgeofHarvard    Thesightofhimashecametotheten-o'clockclasswasinitselfsomethingthathadtoberecognizedasdramatic.Inthepleasantautumnorspring,menstoodhighonthestepsoroutontheturfinfrontandwatchedinthedirectionofChristChurchtoseewhocouldcatchthefirstglimpseofhim."Therehecomes!"somebodycalled,andtheneverybodywhowasinapositiontoseewatchedhimashehurriedbreezilyalong-agraceful,tallishmaninverylightgraysuitandgrayfedorahat,withafullsquarebeardatleastaswhiteashissuit,whomovedwithenergy,andsmokedpassionatelyatabigcigar.StudentsusedtosaythathesmokedanentirecigarwhilehewalkedtheshortdistancealongtheironfenceoftheoldburyinggroundandacrossthestreettoJohnstonGate.Butashecamethroughthegatehetossedtheremnantofhiscigarintotheshrubberywithabitofaflourish,andthestudentsstilloutsidehurriedinandscrambledupthelongstairwayinordertobeintheirplaces-asheliked-beforehehimselfentered.Ifanyofthemwerestillonthestairwaywhenhecameinattheouterdoorlikeagust,theygavewayandhepusheduppastthem,andintothegood-sizedroomanddowntheaisletothefront,threwhishatonthetableinthecorner,mountedthetwostepstotheplatform,lookedaboutwithacommandingeye,andtherewassuddensilenceandunrestrainedexpectancy.-RolloWalterBrownB.ChouEnlai

92    ChouEn-laiarrived[attheguesthouseforstatevisitors]at4:30.Hisgaunt,expressivefacewasdominatedbypiercingeyes,conveyingamixtureofintensityandrepose,ofwarinessandcalmself-confidence.HeworeanimmaculatelytailoredgrayMaotunic,atoncesimpleandelegant.Hemovedgracefullyandwithdignity,fillingaroomnotbyhisphysicaldominance(asdidMaoordeGaulle)butbyhisairofcontrolledtension,steelydiscipline,andself-control,asifhewereacoiledspring.Heconveyedaneasycasualness,which,however,didnotdeceivethecarefulobserver.Thequicksmile,thecomprehendingexpressionthatmadeclearheunderstoodEnglishevenwithouttranslation,thepalpablealertness,wereclearlythefeaturesofamanwhohadhadburnedintohimbyasearinghalf-centurythevitalimportanceofself-possession.Igreetedhimatthedooroftheguesthouseandostentatiouslystuckoutmyhand.Chougavemeaquicksmileandtookit.Itwasthefirststepinputtingthelegacyofthepastbehindus.UnlikeMao,Chouhadlivedabroad;bornofamiddle-classfamilyin1898,hehadbeenabrilliantstudentandhadstudiedandworkedinFranceandGermanyinthe1920s.WhenImethim,hehadbeenaleaderoftheChineseCommunistmovementfornearlyfiftyyears.HehadbeenontheLongMarch.HehadbeentheonlyPremierthePeople'sRepublichadhad-nearlytwenty-twoyears-andfornineofthoseyearshehadalsobeenForeignMinister.ChouhadnegotiatedwithGeneralMarshallinthe1940s.Hewasafigureoutofhistory.Hewasequallyathomeinphilosophy,reminiscence,historicalanalysis,tacticalprobes,humorousrepartee.Hiscommandoffacts,inparticularhisknowledgeofAmericaneventsand,forthatmatter,ofmyownbackground,wasstunning.Therewaslittlewastedmotioneitherinhiswordsorinhismovements.Bothreflectedtheinnertensionsofamanconcerned,ashestressed,withtheendlessdailyproblemsofapeopleof800millionandtheefforttopreserveideologicalfaithforthenextgeneration...Choucouldalsodisplayanextraordinarypersonalgraciousness.Whenjuniormembersofourpartytookill,hewouldvisitthem.DespitethegapinourprotocolrankheinsistedthatourmeetingsalternatebetweenmyresidenceandtheGreatHallofthePeoplesothathewouldcallonmeasoftenasIcalledonhim.AfterwehadsettledonParisasourfuturepointofcontact,ChouneverthelessproposedthatwecontinuetousethePakistanichanneloccasionallybecause"wehaveasayinginChinathatoneshouldn'tbreakthebridgeaftercrossingit."......TheChineseseemedtoregardhimwithspecialreverence,toseeinhimalltheirleadersaspecialquality.Onavisitinlate1975IaskedayounginterpreteraboutChou'shealth;tearsbrimmedinhereyesasshetoldmehewasgravelyill.ItwasnoaccidentthathewassodeeplymournedinChinaafterhisdeath,orthattheextraordinaryexpressionsofyearningforgreaterfreedomthatappearedinChinainthelate1970sinvokedandpraisedhisname.ChouEn-lai,inshort,wasoneofthetwoorthreemostimpressivemenIhaveevermet.Urbane,infinitelypatient,extraordinarilyintelligent,subtle,hemovedthroughourdiscussionswithaneasygracethatpenetratedtotheessenceofournewrelationshipasiftherewerenosensiblealternative.

93-HenryKissinger:WhiteHouseYearsC.AFellowStudent    Itwasmyfirstdayattheuniversity.IwalkedintothebuildingwhereIwasgoingtolive,andlookedatdoorafterdoorformyname.AtlastIfoundit.Intheroomtherewasalreadyastudentmakinghisbed.Afterwesaid"Howdoyoudo"toeachother,hecontinuedhiswork,payingnomoreattentiontome."Whatastuck-upfellow,"Ithought.Iexaminedtheroom.ItwasnotdifferentinthefittingsandfurnishingsfromanyotherroomIhadseen,butithadbeenthoroughlycleaned-bymynewroommate,nodoubt.Ilookedathim.Hewasthin,short,anddark.Hishairwaslikeabundleofstraw.Hisdirtyclothesandtiredlookwereclearlysignsofalongtravel.Hisclothesweremadeofcheapcloth.Thecoatwastooshortandthetrouserstooloose.Andheworeapairofrubbershoes,whichwereveryunfashionable.Hedidnotlooklikeasmartfreshmanatall."Ayokel,"Iconcluded.Thesecondtimehespoke,hisaccenttoldmethathewasfromthesouth."ShallIhelpyoutogetyourluggagefromtheoffice?"IdidnotrefusesinceIreallyneededhelp.Hewasquickinmovement.Hewalkedoutoftheroomandwassoonfaraheadofmeinthecorridor."Agoodguy."Isaidtomyself."Iwillmakefriendswithhim."Ihurriedandcaughtupwithhim.-Student(2)DescriptionofaplacePlacesmaybedescribedfortheirownsake,asinessaysonvisitstofamousscenicplaces,butalsoforthepurposeofrevealingthepersonalityandcharacterofaperson,orcreatingafeelingormood.Acleanandtidyroom,forexample,mightshowthattheoccupantisanorderlyperson.Thehowlingofachillywind,thefallingofautumnleaves,ahousestandinginsolitudeonabarrenmountain,allhelptobuildupasombermoodandincrease,thefeelingofdepression.Asindescribingaperson,indescribingaplaceoneshouldmainlywriteaboutthethingsthatmakeitdifferentfromotherplaces.ModelsA.TheMiddleEasternBazaarTheMiddleEasternbazaartakesyoubackhundreds-eventhousands-ofyears.TheoneIamthinkingofparticularlyisenteredbyaGothic-archedgatewayofagedbrickandstone.Youpassfromtheheatandglareofabig,opensquareintoacool,darkcavernwhichextendsasfarastheeyecansee,losingitselfintheshadowydistance.Littledonkeyswithharmoniouslytinklingbellsthreadtheirwayamongthethrongsof

94peopleenteringandleavingthebazaar.Theroadwayisabouttwelvefeetwide,butitisnarrowedeveryfewyardsbylittlestallswheregoodsofeveryconceivablekindaresold.Thedinofthestall-holderscryingtheirwares,ofdonkey-boysandportersclearingawayforthemselvesbyshoutingvigorously,andofwould-bepurchasersarguingandbargainingiscontinuousandmakesyoudizzy.Thenasyoupenetratedeeperintothebazaar,thenoiseoftheentrancefadesaway,andyoucometothemutedclothmarket.Theearthenfloor,beatenhardbycountlessfeet,deadensthesoundoffootsteps,andthevaultedmudbrickwallsandroofhavehardlyanysoundstoecho.Theshopkeepersspeakinslow,measuredtones,andthebuyers,overwhelmedbythesepulchralatmosphere,followsuit.OneofthepeculiaritiesoftheEasternbazaaristhatshopkeepersdealinginthesamekindofgoodsdonotscatterthemselvesoverthebazaar,inordertoavoidcompetition,butcollectinthesamearea,sothatpurchaserscanknowwheretofindthem,andsothattheycanformacloselyknitguildagainstinjusticeorpersecution.Inthecloth-market,forinstance,allthesellersofmaterialforclothes,curtains,chair-coversandsoonlinetheroadwayonbothsides,eachopen-frontedshophavingatrestletablefordisplayandshelvesforstorage.Bargainingistheorderoftheday,andveiledwomenmoveataleisurelypacefromshoptoshop,selecting,pricinganddoingalittlepreliminarybargainingbeforetheynarrowdowntheirchoiceandbeginthereallyseriousbusinessofbeatingthepricedown.Itisapointofhonorwiththecustomernottolettheshopkeeperguesswhatitisshereallylikesandwantsuntilthelastmoment.Ifhedoesguesscorrectly,hewillpricetheitemhigh,andyieldlittleinthebargaining.Theseller,ontheotherhand,makesapointofprotestingthatthepriceheischargingisdeprivinghimofallprofit,andthatheissacrificingthisbecauseofhispersonalregardforthecustomer.Bargainingcangoonthewholeday,orevenseveraldays,withthecustomercomingandgoingatintervals.Oneofthemostpicturesqueandimpressivepartsofthebazaaristhecopper-smiths'market.Asyouapproachit,atinklingandbangingandclashingbeginstoimpingeonyourear.Itgrowslouderandmoredistinct,untilyouroundacornerandseeafairylandofdancingflashes,astheburnishedcoppercatchesthelightofinnumerablelampsandbraziers.Ineachshopsittheapprentices-boysandyouths,someofthemincrediblyyoung-hammeringawayatcoppervesselsofallshapesandsizes,whiletheshop-ownerinstructs,andsometimestakesahandwithahammerhimself.Inthebackground,atinyapprenticeblowsacharcoalfirewithahugeleatherbellowworkedbyastringattachedtohisbigtoe-theredofthelivecoalsglowingbrightandthendimmingrhythmicallytothestrokesofthebellows.Hereyoucanfindbeautifulpotsandbowlsengravedwithdelicateandintricatetraditionaldesigns,orthesimple,everydaykitchenwareusedinthiscountry,pleasinginform;butundecoratedandstrictlyfunctional.Elsewherethereisthecarpet-market,withitsprofusionofrichcolors,variedtexturesandregionaldesigns-someboldandsimple,othersunbelievablydetailedandyetharmonious.Thenthereisthespice-market,withitspungentandexoticsmells;andthefood-market,whereyoucanbuyeverythingyouneedforthemostsumptuous

95dinner,oreatyourhumblebreadandcheese.Thedye-market,thepottery-marketandthecarpenters'marketlieelsewhereinthemazeofvaultedstreetswhichhoneycombthisbazaar.Everyhereandthere,adoorwaygivesaglimpseofasunlitcourtyardperhapsbeforeamosqueoracaravanserai,wherecamelsliedisdainfullychewingtheirhay,whilethegreatbalesofmerchandisetheyhavecarriedhundredsofmilesacrossthedesertliebesidethem.Perhapsthemostunforgettablethinginthebazaar,apartfromitsgeneralatmosphere,istheplacewheretheymakelinseedoil.Itisavast,sombercavernofaroom,somethirtyfeethighandsixtyfeetsquare,andsothickwiththedustofcenturiesthatthemudbrickwallsandvaultedroofareonlydimlyvisible.Inthiscavernarethreemassivestonewheels,eachwithahugepolethroughitscenterasanaxle.Thepoleisattachedattheoneendtoanuprightpost,aroundwhichitcanrevolve,andattheothertoablind-foldedcamel,whichwalksconstantlyinacircle,providingthemotivepowertoturnthestonewheel.Thisrevolvesinacircularstonechannel,intowhichanattendantfeedslinseed.Thestonewheelcrushesittoapulp,whichisthenpressedtoextracttheoil.ThecamelsarethelargestandfinestIhaveeverseenandinsuperbcondition-muscular,massiveandstately.Thepressingofthelinseedpulptoextracttheoilisdonebyavastramshackleapparatusofbeamsandropesandpulleyswhichtowerstothevaultedceilinganddwarfsthecamelsandtheirstonewheels.Themachineisoperatedbyoneman,whoshovelsthelinseedpulpintoastonevat,climbsupnimblytoadizzyheighttofastenropes,andthenthrowshisweightontoagreatbeammadeoutofatreetrunktosettheropesandpulleysinmotion.Ancientgirderscreakandgroan,ropestightenandthenatrickleofoiloozesdownastonerummelintoausedpetorlcan.Quicklythetricklebecomesafloodofglisteninglinseedoilasthebeamsinksearthwards,tautandprotesting,itscreaksblendingwiththesqueakingandtumblingofthegrinding-wheelsandtheoccasionalgruntsandsighsofthecamels.(fromAdvancedComprehensionandAppreciationPieces,1962)B.LajiaTemple    LajiaTemplelieshalfwayupDalanHillinMinghecounty,Qinghaiprovince.ItwasbuiltduringtheNorthernWeidynastyinremembranceofLajiameshi,amemberoftheYellowSectofLamaismofIndia,whocametoChinain321A.D.tospreadHinayanadoctrineandspentthirteenyearspreachingaroundthisplaceuntilhereturnedtoIndiain334A.D.ThestonestaircasesleadyoufromthefootofthehillstraighttotheredgateofLajiaTemplefacingtheeast.Enteringthegatethereisapath200meterslongandthreemeterswidestretchingoutbeforeyourfeet.Standingatbothsidesofthepatharetwosmallcone-shapedpavilions,eachissupportedbythreeredpillars.Therestandsatabletrecordingthehistoryofthetempleinthepavilionontheleft,whileinthepavilionontheright,thereisachesstablemadeofstone.Althoughitiswornbyconstantuse,youcanstilldiscernthelines

96onthestone.ItissaidduringtheyeaswhenLajiameshimeditatedinthecavebehindthetemple,hesometimesplayedchesswiththelocalpeopleonthistablewhenhewastiredfromsitting.Laterafterhisdeparture,thecavecollapsedandthechesstablewasremovedintothetemple.ThepathfinallyendsrightinfrontofFalundian,theHallofDharma.Itisatriangularprism-shapedstructurewithaclayelephantontheridge.Underthefouroverhangingeavesarefourgreatpillarsonwhichflyingdragonsarespirallingupward.Thewholestructureisabout11metersinheightandoccupiesafloorspaceof300squaremeters.Onceyougetintothehall,thefirstthingyouseeisthecoloredclaysculptureofSakyamunisittingcross-leggedonthewaterlilystand.TheBuddhahasacalmsmileonhisface.Therobeistightlywrappedaroundhisbodyasifhehasjustcomeoutofwater.OntherightofSakyamuniisthelaughingAmitabhainhishalf-lyingposture,whiletheBuddhaofInfiniteLifeonthelefthasaserenelook.AtthebackofthethreebuddhasisthestandingstatueofLajia-meshi,madeofelm.Itistheimageofathinmanwithlongcurlyhairandbrighteyes.Hisleftlegisraisedasifheweresteppingswiftlyintothegateofheaven.Thelongstreaksengravedonthecassockgiveyoutheimpressionthatheisridingonthewind.ThiswasamostlearnedmanwhocametoChinaasareligiouspreacher,andatthesametimeheintroducedatotallydifferentculturetotheChinesepeople.Largelyowingtohisefforts,theChinesebuiltthefirstandlargesttempleoftheYellowSectofLamaismofChina-TaerTemple.-StudentC.AFreeMarket    Withashoppingbaginmyhand,Ienteredthegateofthefreemarketnearmyhome.SuddenlyaterriblesmellreachedmynoseandIcouldnothelpfeelingnauseated.LookingaroundIfoundthatthefoulsmellcamefromthepoultrystallsontheleftsideofthestreet.There,everysmallcagewaspackedwithfourorfivechickens.Occasionally,thechickenscrowedsadlyasiftheyknewtheyweregoingtobecooked.Thefeedstankunderthehotsummersun.Iputahandkerchieftomynoseandhurriedaway."Livefish!Freshandcheap!"Ahuskyvoiceofamanwasheard.Infrontofhisstall,therestoodabigcanvasbag.Inside,alotoffishwerestrugglingintheturbidwater.Theyopenedtheirmouthswidelytohavetheirlastbreathofair.Terrifiedattheprice,Ileftforotherstalls.Justthenayoungfellowstoppedmeandtriedtopersuademetobuyachainofgarlicinhishand.Hewasdisappointedtoseemeshakingmyhead.ThenIcametothevegetableandfruitstallswhichmadeupthebusiestsectionofthemarket.Agoodvarietyofvegetablesandfruitscouldbefoundhereatsummertime.Redtomatoes,greencucumbersandpepperswereputatthemostconspicuousplaces.Thesweetsmellofthefruits-peaches,plums,muskmelons,andpurple-coloredgrapes-haddrawnmanycustomers.Thesellerswerepraisingtheirproduceinstrongprovincialaccentsandcompetingwitheachotherbyofferinglowerprices.

97Housewiveswouldcertainlydriveagoodbargainwiththesellersbeforetheyreallyboughtanything.Atthefarendofthemarketweretheclothingstalls.Colorfulclotheswerehunguphightoattractpeople'sattention.Therewerequiteanumberofpeoplebutonlyfewboughtanyclothes.Agirlhadstoodatoneofthestallsforalongtime.ObviouslyshedesiredtohavethatfashionableskirtwhichwassaidtobemadeinHongKong.Butfinallysheleft,forshewasunwillingtopayalmosthermonthlywageof80yuanforit.Afterhoursofshopping-choosingandbargaining,Ileftthenoisymarket,exhaustedbutquitesatisfied,mybagfullofvegetablesandfruits.-Student(3)DescriptionofanobjectTodescribeanobjectwehavetodependonoursenses,becauseweneedtomentionitssize,shape,color,texture,taste,andsmell.Itisalsonecessarytotellhowitisusedifitisuseful,andwhatpartitplaysinaperson'slifeifitisinsomewayrelatedtohim.Butemphasisshouldbeplacedononlyoneaspectoftheobject,probablyitsmostimportantcharacteristic.ModelTheEarliestCoinsinChinaOfthevariouscurrenciesusedinancientChina,theroundbronzecoinwithasquareholeinthecenterwasbyfarthemostcommon.Theearliestcoinsinthisform,knownasQinbanliang,wereaproductofChina'sfirstcentralizedkingdom,theQindynasty,establishedbyQinShiHuangin221B.C.BeforetheQindynasty,Chinesecurrencyhadtakenmanyforms.Coinsshapedlikevariousitemsofclothing,farmimplements,orkniveswereincirculation,buttheywerecostlyandhardtoproduce,anddifficulttocarryandtransport.Thenewcoinswereagreatimprovement-theywererelativelysimpletocastandcouldbestrungtogetherforeaseoftransportation.ThenewcoinsalsohadaparticularphilosophicalsignificancetotheancientChinese,whomadethecoinstosymbolizetheirbeliefthatheavenwasroundandtheearthwassquare,andthatheavenshelteredtheearthandallthingsintheuniversewereunited.ThisconceptofunitywasimportanttotheQinemperors,whoruledoveraunifiedChinaandbelievedtheirpowergreatenoughtospreadtothefourcornersoftheearth.Thecoinsalsohadgreataestheticappeal.Theywerethoughttorepresenttherelationshipbetweenmanandnature.Commonlyfoundinnature,thecirclerepresentsfreedom,comfort,andease;whereasthesquareisseenassomethingman-made,asymboloflaw,order,andrestraint.Allthesefactorscombinedtokeepthecoinsincirculationformorethan2,000years,onlyinthetwentiethcenturydidtheyceasetobelegaltender.-ChenXingde

98(4)DescriptionofasceneAsceneissometimesthemainpartofanessay,andsometimesonlyanepisodeinalongnarrative.Itusuallyconsistsofthreebasicfactors:thesetting,thepeople,andtheactions.Itisalsopossibletodescribethesceneofsomenaturalphenomenon.Again,thewritershouldtrytocreateadominantimpressionwhendescribingascene.Beforehebeginstowrite,hemustmakeuphismindastowhateffecthewantsthedescriptiontoachieve.Thiswillhelphimtodecidewhichdetailstodeleteandwhichtoinclude.ModelsA.Typhoon    Thetyphooncameoutoftheseafirstasadeephollowroar.Thenitappearedasamonstrousblackcloud.Thecloudseemedathingalive,shapingitselfthiswayandthat,tornbycontendingwinds.Howeveritmightstretchtorightorleft,itcontinuedtospreadupwardandreachtowardeastandwest.Thedaydarkenedtotwilightandthedreadedroarofsoundcamerushingtowardmefromoutofthedepths.Icrouchedbehindmyrockandwaited.Atfirst,Iremember,therewasnorain,onlythewildwindsandthetossingsea.Anhourearlier,theseahadbeencalmandblue.Nowitwasblackandstreakedwithcrestsofwhitefoam.Whentheraincameitwasallofasudden,asthoughthecloudshadopenedandspilled.Acurtainofrainfellbetweenmountainandsea,asolidsheetofwaterthreefeetawayfromme.Thegrassandbrushonthemountainsideflattenedunderthewindandtherain.Iwassurroundedbythemadness,theunreason,ofuncontrolled,undisciplinedenergy...Thestormspentitselfatlast.Thewindsdispersed,therainslackenedtoadrizzleandmist,thecloudfellapartandthesunshonethrough.Icameoutfrommyshelterandsurveyedtheruinleftbehind.Treeshadfallenonthelowerlevels,gulliesweredugintotheearthbetweentherocks,theverygrassandunderbrushlayflatandexhausted.-PearlBuckB.DragonLanternShowsForcitydwellers,dragonlanternscanbeseenonlyongrandceremoniesonTV.Inmyhometown,however,puttingonadragonlanternshowisaverypopularperformance.TocelebratetheSpringFestival,manyvillagesmakepreparationsforthedragonlanternshow.Usuallyavillageorganizesateamofitsown,butsometimesitisalsopossibleforpeoplefromseveralvillagestoformoneteam.Dragonlanternsaremadeintheshapeofdragonswhicharebelievedtobeexistinginheaven.Theyaremadeofwhitegauze,withninepartsorevenmore.Candlesareputintothebodiesofthedragonssothatintheeveningtheylookevenmorelively

99thaninthedaytime.Whenpeopleputondragonlanternshows,theyaresaidtobe"imitating"thevariousposturesandmovementsofadragon.Inthecountryside,theperformancesareoftengivenintheeveninginthefirstmonthofthelunarcalendar.Duringthatperiodoftime,myhometownisfilledwithjoyandexcitement.Intheevening,peopleareimmersedingreatpleasure,watchingvariouskindsofdragonschangingtheirposturesconstantly.Look!Amaledragoniscirclingtheplayground,whilefourormorefemaleonesaredancinggracefully.Sometimes,twolionsarerunningandjumpingamongthecrowdofdragons.Thewholeplaygroundisbrightenedwithcandlelight.Therhythmicsoundofgongsanddrumsthataccompanytheshowattractmanypeoplewhoshoutandlaughwhilewatching.Eventheskylookslively.Besidesgivingdragonlanternshows,theperformersbringsinceregoodwishestothepeoplewhowatch.InChina,thedragonhaslongbeenregardedasasymbolofhappinessandauspiciousness.Whenateamcomestoperforminaneighboringvillage,italsobringstothevillagersthemostsincerehopethatgoodluckandhappinesswillaccompanytheminthecomingnewyear.ThefifteenthofthefirstmonthofthelunarcalendariscalledtheLanternFestival.Itisthedaywhenalldragonsflybacktoheavenfromwhichtheyarebelievedtohavecome.Thatevening,dragonlanternsareplayedinasmanydifferentwaysastheplayerscanthinkof.ManypeoplewillcometoenjoythismostmagnificentmomentintheSpringFestival.Afterthatcarnival,thegauzelanternswilldisappearinafire,symbolizingthatthedragonsaregoingbacktoheaven.Withtheirdeparture,grown-upsgohomethinkingseriouslyabouttheworktobedoneinthenewyear,whilechildrenhopethatmoredragonswillcomenextyear.-Student2.NarrationTonarrateistogiveanaccountofaneventoraseriesofevents.Initsbroadestsense,narrativewritingincludesstories,realorimaginary,biographies,histories,newsitems,andnarrativepoems.Narrationoftengoeshandinhandwithdescription.Whenonetellsastory,onedescribesitssettingandcharacters.Ontheotherhand,accountsofactionsmaybenecessarytothedescriptionofapersonorascene.Whenplanninganarrative,thewritershouldconsiderthesefiveaspects:context,selectionofdetails,organization,pointofview,andpurpose.(1)ContextWhen,where,andtowhomtheactioninanarrativehappenedisoftenmadeclearatthebeginningofthenarrative.Thiswillprovidethereaderwithacontext,orcircumstances,tohelphimunderstandthewholenarrative.(2)Selectionofdetails

100Anarrativeismadeupofdetails.Thereshouldbeenoughdetailssothatthereaderknowswhatishappening,butthereshouldnotbetoomanyofthem,orthereaderwillbeconfusedandloseinterestinthestory.Onlyrelevantdetails,orthingsthatcontributetobringingoutthemainideasofthenarrative,areusefulandeffective.Whenselectingdetails,therefore,thewritershouldbearinmindhispurposeinwritingthenarrative.(3)OrganizationEventsinanarrativeareusuallyrelatedinchronologicalorder,thatis,intheorderinwhichtheyoccur.Butitisalsopossible,andsometimespreferable,tostartfromthemiddleoreventheendofthestorywiththeeventthatismostimportantormostlikelytoarousethereader'sinterest,andthengobacktothebeginningbyusingflashbacks.Anarrativegenerallyhasabeginning,amiddle,andanend.Thesettingmaybegiveninthebeginning.Themiddle(thebody)tellsthestoryitself.Whenthestoryisclearlytold,thenarrativecomestoanaturalend;thenthereisnoneedforasuperfluousconcludingparagraph.Butsometimesitmaybenecessarytoaddoneortwoparagraphsaboutthesignificanceofthestoryoraboutthingsthathappenafterwards.(4)PointofviewAstorycanbetoldeitherinthefirstpersonorinthethirdperson,eachhavingitsadvantagesanddisadvantages.Afirst-personnarrativemaybemoregraphicandlifelike,becauseitgivesthereadertheimpressionthatitiswhatthewriterhimselfhasseenorexperienced.Butthescopeofthenarrativemaybelimited,foritisdifficulttorecounteventsthathappenindifferentplacesatthesametime.Athird-personnarrativeisfreefromthislimitation,anditmayseemmoreobjective,butitisnoteasytoputingoodorderthingsthathappentodifferentpeopleindifferentplaces.(5)PurposeTheremustbeapurposeintellingastory.Thewritermaywanttoproveatheory,toillustrateaconcept,topraiseavirtue,tocondemnavice,etc.Heshouldmakesurethatthetotaleffectofhisnarrative,orthefinalimpressionitleavesonthereader,isinagreementwithhispurpose.Toachievethis,hehastochoosedetailsanddesigntheplotofhisstorycarefully.ModelsA.SalvationIwassavedfromsinwhenIwasgoingonthirteen.Butnotreallysaved.Ithappenedlikethis.TherewasabigrevivalatmyAuntieReed'schurch.Everynightforweekstherehadbeenmuchpreaching,singing,praying,andshouting,andsomevery

101hardenedsinnershadbeenbroughttoChrist,andthemembershipofthechurchhadgrownbyleapsandbounds.Thenjustbeforetherevivalended,theyheldaspecialmeetingforchildren,"tobringtheyounglambstothefold."Myauntspokeofitfordaysahead.ThatnightIwasescortedtothefrontrowandplacedinthemourners'benchwithalltheotheryoungsinners,whohadnotyetbeenbroughttoJesus.Myaunttoldmethatwhenyouweresavedyousawalight,andsomethinghappenedtoyouinside.AndJesuscameintoyourlife!AndGodwaswithyoufromthenon.ShesaidyoucouldseeandhearandfeelJesusinyoursoul.Ibelievedher,Ihadheardagreatmanyoldpeoplesaythesamethinganditseemedtometheyoughttoknow.SoIsattherecalmlyinthehot,crowdedchurch,waitingforJesustocometome.Thepreacherpreachedawonderfulrhythmicalsermon,allmoansandshoutsandlonelycriesanddirepicturesofhell,andthenhesangasongabouttheninetyandninesafeinthefold,butonelittlelambwasleftoutinthecold.Thenhesaid:"Won'tyoucome?Won'tyoucometoJesus?Younglambs,won'tyoucome?"Andheheldouthisarmstoallusyoungsinnersthereonthemourners'bench.Andthelittlegirlscried.AndsomeofthemjumpedupandwenttoJesusrightaway.ButmostofusJustsatthere.Agreatmanyoldpeoplecameandkneltaroundusandprayed,oldwomenwithjet-blackfacesandbraidedhair,oldmen,withwork-knarledhands.Andthechurchsangasongaboutthelowerlightsareburning,somepoorsinnerstobesaved.Andthewholebuildingrockedwithprayerandsong.StillIkeptwaitingtoseeJesus.Finallyalltheyoungpeoplehadgonetothealtarandweresaved,butoneboyandme.Hewasarounder'ssonnamedWestley.WestleyandIweresurroundedbysistersanddeaconspraying.Itwasveryhotinthechurch,andgettinglatenow.FinallyWestleysaidtomeinawhisper:"Goddamn!I'mtiredo'sittinghere.Let'sgetupandbesaved."Sohegotupandwassaved.ThenIwasleftallaloneonthemourners'bench.Myauntcameandkneltatmykneesandcried,whileprayersandsongsswirledallaroundmeinthelittlechurch.Thewholecongregationprayedformealone,inamightywailofmoansandvoices.AndIkeptwaitingserenelyforJesus,waiting,waiting-buthedidn'tcome.Iwantedtoseehim,butnothinghappenedtome.Nothing!Iwantedsomethingtohappentome,butnothinghappened.Iheardthesongsandtheministersaying:"Whydon'tyoucome?Mydearchild,whydon'tyoucometoJesus?Jesusiswaitingforyou.Hewantsyou.Whydon'tyoucome?SisterReed,whatisthischild'sname?""Langston,"myauntsobbed."Langston,whydon'tyoucome?Whydon'tyoucomeandbesaved?Oh,LambofGod!Whydon'tyoucome?"Nowitwasreallygettinglate.Ibegantobeashamedofmyself,holdingeverythingupsolong.IbegantowonderwhatGodthoughtaboutWestley,whocertainlyhadn'tseenJesuseither,butwhowasnowsittingproudlyontheplatform,swinginghisknickerbockeredlegsandgrinningdownatme,surroundedbydeaconsandoldwomenontheirkneespraying.GodhadnotstruckWestleydeadfortakinghisname

102invainorforlyinginthetemple.SoIdecidedthatmaybetosavefurthertrouble,I'dbetterlie,too,andsaythatJesushadcome,andgetupandbesaved.SoIgotup.Suddenlythewholeroombrokeintoaseaofshouting,astheysawmerise.Wavesofrejoicingswepttheplace.Womenleapedintheair.Myauntthrewherarmsaroundme.Theministertookmebythehandandledmetotheplatform.Whenthingsquieteddown,inahushedsilence,punctuatedbyafewecstatic"Amens,"allthenewyounglambswereblessedinthenameofGod.Thenjoyoussingingfilledtheroom.Thatnight,forthelasttimeinmylifebutone-forIwasabigboytwelveyearsold-Icried.Icried,inbedalone,andcouldn'tstop.Iburiedmyheadunderthequilts,butmyauntheardme.ShewokeupandtoldmyuncleIwascryingbecausetheHolyGhosthadcomeintomylife,andbecauseIhadseenJesus.ButIwasreallycryingbecauseIcouldn'tbeartotellherthatIhadlied,thatIhaddeceivedeverybodyinthechurch,thatIhadn'tseenJesus,andthatnowIdidn'tbelievetherewasaJesusanymore,sincehedidn'tcometohelpme.-LangstonHughesB.TheMostImportantDayinMyLifeThemostimportantdayIrememberinallmylifeistheoneonwhichmyteacher,AnneMansfieldSullivan,cametome.IamfilledwithwonderwhenIconsidertheimmeasurablecontrastsbetweenthetwoliveswhichitconnects.ItwasthethirdofMarch,1887,threemonthsbeforeIwassevenyearsold.Ontheafternoonofthateventfulday,Istoodontheporch,dumb,expectant.Iguessedvaguelyfrommymother'ssighsandfromthehurryingtoandfrointhehousethatsomethingunusualwasabouttohappen,soIwenttothedoorandwaitedonthesteps.Theafternoonsunpenetratedthemassofhoneysucklethatcoveredtheporch,andfellonmyupturnedface.Myfingerslingeredalmostunconsciouslyonthefamiliarleavesandblossomswhichhadjustcomeforthtogreetthesweetsouthernspring.Ididnotknowwhatthefutureheldofmarvelorsurpriseforme.Angerandbitternesshadpreyeduponmecontinuallyforweeksandadeeplanguorhadsucceededthispassionatestruggle.Haveyoueverbeenatseainadensefog,whenitseemedasifatangiblewhitedarknessshutyouin,andthegreatship,tenseandanxious,gropedherwaytowardtheshorewithplummetandsounding-line,andyouwaitedwithbeatingheartforsomethingtohappen?Iwaslikethatshipbeforemyeducationbegan,onlyIwaswithoutcompassorsounding-line,andhadnowayofknowinghowneartheharborwas."Light!Givemelight!"wasthewordlesscryofmysoul,andthelightofloveshoneonmeinthatveryhour.Ifeltapproachingfootsteps.IstretchedoutmyhandasIsupposedtomymother.Someonetookit,andIwascaughtupandheldcloseinthearmsofherwhohadcometorevealallthingstome,and,morethanallthingselse,tolove

103me.Themorningaftermyteachercame,sheledmeintoherroomandgavemeadoll.ThelittleblindchildrenatthePerkinsInstitutionhadsentitandLauraBridgmanhaddressedit;butIdidnotknowthisuntilafterward.WhenIhadplayedwithitalittlewhile.MissSullivanslowlyspelledintomyhandtheword"d-o-l-l."Iwasatonceinterestedinthisfingerplayandtriedtoimitateit.WhenIfinallysucceededinmakingtheletterscorrectly,Iwasflushedwithchildishpleasureandpride.Runningdownstairstomymother,Iheldupmyhandandmadethelettersfordoll.IdidnotknowthatIwasspellingawordoreventhatwordsexisted;Iwassimplymakingmyfingersgoinmonkey-likeimitation.InthedaysthatfollowedIlearnedtospellinthisuncomprehendingwayagreatmanywords,amongthempin,hat,cupandafewverbslikesit,stand,andwalk.ButmyteacherhadbeenwithmeseveralweeksbeforeIunderstoodthateverythinghasaname.Oneday,whileIwasplayingwithmynewdoll,MissSullivanputmybigragdollintomylapalso,spelled"d-o-l-l"andtriedtomakemeunderstandthat"d-o-l-l"appliedtoboth.Earlierinthedaywehadhadatussleoverthewords"m-u-g"and"w-a-t-e-r."MissSullivanhadtriedtoimpressituponmethat"m-u-g"ismugandthat"w-a-t-e-r"iswater,butIpersistedinconfoundingthetwo.Indespairshehaddroppedthesubjectforthetime,onlytorenewitatthefirstopportunity.Ibecameimpatientatherrepeatedattemptsandseizingthenewdoll,Idashedituponthefloor.IwaskeenlydelightedwhenIfeltthefragementsofthebrokendollatmyfeet.Neithersorrownorregretfollowedmypassionateoutburst,Ihadnotlovedthedoll.Inthestill,darkworldinwhichIlivedtherewasnostrongsentimentoftenderness.Ifeltmyteachersweepthefragmentstoonesideofthehearth,andIhadasenseofsatisfactionthatthecauseofmydiscomfortwasremoved.Shebroughtmemyhat,andIknewIwasgoingoutintothewarmsunshine.Thisthought,ifawordlesssensationmaybecalledathought,mademehopandskipwithpleasure.Wewalkeddownthepathtothewell-house,attractedbythefragranceofhoneysucklewithwhichitwascovered.Someonewasdrawingwaterandmyteacherplacedmyhandunderthespout.Asthecoolstreamgushedoveronehand,shespelledintotheotherthewordwater,firstslowly,thenrapidly.Istoodstill,mywholeattentionfixeduponthemotionsofherfingers.SuddenlyIfeltamistyconsciousnessasifsomethingforgotten-athrillofreturningthought;andsomehowthemysteryoflanguagewasrevealedtome.Iknewthenthat"w-a-t-e-r"meantthewonderfulcoolsomethingthatwasflowingovermyhand.Thatlivingwordawakenedmysoul,gaveitlight,hope,joy,setitfree!Therewerebarriersstill,itistrue,butbarriersthatcouldintimebesweptaway.Ileftthewell-houseeagertolearn.Everythinghadaname,andeachnamegavebirthtoanewthought.Aswereturnedtothehouse,everyobjectwhichItouchedseemedtoquiverwithlife.ThatwasbecauseIsaweverythingwiththestrange,newsightthathadcometome.OnenteringthedoorIrememberedthedollIhadbroken.Ifeltmywaytothehearthandpickedupthepieces.Itriedvainlytoputthemtogether.Thenmyeyesfilledwithtears;forIrealized,whatIhaddone,andforthefirsttimeIfeltrepentanceandsorrow.Ilearnedagreatmanynewwordsthatday.Idonotrememberwhattheyallwere;but

104Idoknowthatmother,father,sister,teacherwereamongthem-wordsthatweretomaketheworldblossomforme,"likeAaron'srod,withflowers."ItwouldhavebeendifficulttofindahappierchildthanIwasasIlayinmycribatthecloseofthateventfuldayandlivedoverthejoysithadbroughtme,andforthefirsttimelongedforanewdaytocome.-HelenKellerC.TheStampIncidentIcanneverforgetthestampincidentwhichhappenedwhenIwasaprimaryschoolpupil.MybestfriendwhosenicknamewasApplewasastamp-collector.Hetriedeverywaytogetstampsandspenteverypennyhehadonthem.Onceheobtainedabeautifulorpreciousstamphewouldbemorethanhappy.Iwasalwayshiscompanioninhissearchforstamps.OnedayApplewhisperedtomemysteriouslythathehadfoundamostwonderfulstamponaletteraddressedtoouryoungarithmeticteacher,whowasaveryprettyandkind-heartedgirl.Applewantedthatstampsobadlythathesaidifhecouldn'tgetit,hewouldn'tbeabletoeatorsleep.Thentheideaofstealingoccurredtohim,andhecouldn'tgetridofit.Iwasfrightenedandbeggedhimnottodothat.Heshowedsignsofmuchhesitation,too.Withoutsayinganymorewords,heleft.Thateveninghehurriedtomyhomeandalmostdraggedmeoutofthehousetothecornerofastreetandshowedmealetter.Itwasinaman'shandwriting.IntheletterthemanimploredourteachertoforgivehimandaskedhertomeethimatthegateofShanlinParkateightthatevening.Ifnot,he'dtakeitthatshewouldneverforgivehim,anditmeanttheendoftheirrelationship."Theteacheraskedmeiftherewasanyletterforherthisafternoon.Yousee,sheknowsIamastamp-collectorandalwayswanderabouttheplacewherelettersaredelivered.WhenIsaid'No',shelookedrathersad,"AppletoldmeafterIhadreadtheletter.Wewerecompletelyataloss.Toofrightenedtogototheteacher,wedecidedtogotothemeetingplaceourselves.Whenwearrivedatthepark,wefoundatthegateatallyoungmanwithglasses,walkingbackandforthasifhewaswaitinganxiouslyforsomeone.Helookedathiswatchfromtimetotime.Ididnotknowhowlongwehadbeenthere.Finallythemanleft,lookingveryworriedanddisappointed.Afewdayslater,ourteacheraskedAppletogotoherroomandgavehimmanystamps.Withamelancholyexpressiononherface,shetoldApplethatsheoncehadafriendwhowasastamp-collectortoo,butshehadlosthimforever,sothestampsshehadcollectedforhimwerenolongeruseful.Applerantomewithstampsinhishandandtearsinhiseyes.Webothcriedbitterly.Fromthenon,Applenevercollectedanymorestamps;neitherdidI.

105-Student3.ExpositionExpositionisperhapsthetypeofwritingthatismostfrequentlyusedbyastudent,ascientist,oraprofessional.Expositionmeansexpoundingorexplaining.Anexpositorypaperexplainsorexploressomething,suchastheprocessofmakingamachine,thecausesofanaturalorsocialphenomenon,theplanningofaproject,orthesolutionofaproblem.Wehaveseenthatdescriptionmainlydealswithappearancesandfeelings,andnarrationwitheventsandexperiences.Unlikethesetwotypesofwriting,expositionmainlydealswithprocessesandrelationships.Wearewritingadescriptiveessaywhenwedescribetheappearanceofanobject;butwearewritinganexpositoryessaywhenweexplainhowitismade,howitisused,andhowitmaychange.Whenwenarrateahistoricalevent,wetellwhathappened,whenandwhereithappened,andwhotookpartinit.Inanexpositorypaper,wediscussitscauseandeffect,itsnature,anditssignificanceinhistory.Thingscanbeexplainedbyillustration,process,classificationanddivision,comparisonandcontrast,ananalysisoftheircausesandeffects,ordefinition.Thatistosay,methodswhicharegoodforparagraphdevelopmentarealsogoodforexpositoryessays.Thedifferenceliesinscopeandproportion.Inaparagraphapointisoftenmadeinoneortwosentences;inanessayitmaytakeoneortwoparagraphstomakeapointclear.Themostimportantqualityofexpositionisclarity.Toachievethisthewritershould:1)Limithissubjectorthescopeofdiscussion,foritisimpossibletoexplainmanythingsclearlyinashortessay;2)Prepareenoughmaterial(detailsorexamples)tohelphisexplanation;theordinaryreaderoftenfindsabstractdiscussionshardtofollowiftheyarenotillustratedbyconcreteexamples;3)Presenthisfactsandviewsinproperorder,intheorderoftimeoroflogicalsequencedependingonthenatureofthesubject;4)Payattentiontotheaccuracyandclarityofwordsandsentences;avoidornamentalaswellasambiguousexpressions;and5)Makehisexposition,ifpossible,interestingormoving-anexperiencedwritercanofteninstructandmoveorentertainhisreaderatthesametime.(1)IllustrationIllustrationistheuseofexampletoillustrateapoint.Itisthemostcommon,andoftenthemostefficient,patternofexposition.Indeed,itishardtowriteagoodpaperofanykindwithoutusingitatleastsomeexamples.Goodexampleshelptoclarifyawriter'sthoughtbymakingthegeneralspecific,andtheabstractconcrete.Theyalsoaddinterestandhelptopersuadeorconvincethereader.Illustrationissometimesusedaloneasthebasicmeansofdevelopment;butitisalso,

106andperhapsmorefrequently,usedwithotherbasictechniques,suchascomparisonandcontrast,classificationanddivision,definition,etc.Asuccessfulillustrationpaperdependson1)Awiseselectionofsufficientexampleswhicharespecificandtypical,interestingandrelevant-theexamplesmaybeeitherpersonalexperiencesorsecond-handinformationfromreliablesources;and2)Anexpertarrangementoftheseexamples-similarorrelatedexamplesshouldbegroupedtogetherandarrangedclimactically.ModelsA.LanguageandCultureOnceagroupofChinesewasvisitingthehomeofafairlywell-to-doAmerican.Astheywereshownaroundthehouse,theycommented,"Youhaveaverynicehome.It'ssobeautiful."ThehostesssmiledwithobviouspleasureandrepliedingoodAmericanfashion"Thankyou"-whichcausedsurpriseamongsomeofherChineseguests.Later,whileconversingatthedinnertable,thehostremarkedtotheChineseinterpreter,ayoungladywhohadgraduatednotlongagofromaChineseuniversity,"YourEnglishisexcellent.Reallyquitefluent."Tothisshedemurred,"No,no.MyEnglishisquitepoor"-ananswerthathehadnotexpectedandfoundabitpuzzling.WastheAmericanhostess'replyimmodest,asitseemedtosomeoftheChinese?WastheyoungChineseinterpreter'sremarkinsincere,asitsoundedtotheAmericans?Inbothcasestheanswerisno.ToEnglish-speakingpeople,praiseistobeaccepted,generallywitharemarklike"Thankyou."Itisassumedthatthecomplimentissincere,thatthepraiseisforsomenotunworthyachievementorthing.Therefore,thereshouldbenoshowoffalsehumility,nopretendedmodesty.ToChinese,however,thecustomaryreplytoacomplimentwouldbetoclaimthatoneisnotworthyofthepraise,thatwhatonehasdoneishardlyenough,orthatsuccesswasmoreamatterofluckorsomeothercircumstances.Aceptanceofacomplimentwouldimplyconceitorlackofmanners.So,inthetwocasesabove,thereasonforsuchdifferentreactionswasdifferencesincustomsandhabits.Eachwasinterpretingwhattheothersaidaccordingtohisorherownculture.Eventslikethesearefairlycommonwhenpeopleofdifferentlanguagesandculturescommunicate.Becauseofcultualdifferences,misunderstandingsmayarise,althoughthelanguageusedincommunicationmaybefaultless.Thesamewordsorexpressionsmaynotmeanthesamethingtodifferentpeoples.Becauseofculturaldifferences,aseriousquestionmaycauseamusementorlaughter;aharmlessstatementmaycausedispleasureoranger.Becauseofculturaldifferences,jokesbyaforeignspeakermaybereceivedwithblankfacesandstonysilence.Yetthesamestoriesinthespeaker'sowncountrywouldleaveaudiencesholdingtheirsideswithlaughter.-DengYanchangB.TheAdvantagesofTemporaryJobs

107Severalyearsago,peoplewereoftenalittlesurprisedwhentheyheardthatacollegestudentwasdoingapart-timeoratemporaryjob."Why?Maybeheisshortofmoney,"theythought.Nowadays,lotsofcollegestudentsareworkingastutors.Someserveastourguidesordowhateverworktheycanfindduringvacations.Inbigcities,studentsoftenputupadvertisementsonbulletinboardsorwirepolesnearbusstops.Aretheyallshortofmoney?Perhapsnot."Bydoingpart-timejobs,wehavebroadenedourvisionandgainedsomeexperience,"thosewhodotemporaryjobsoftensay.Sincemoststudentsentercollegeassoonastheyfinishmiddleschool,theylackexperienceinthewaysofsociety.Whentheygraduatefromcollege,theyoftenfindtheoutsideworldisnotassimpleastheythoughtandhavedifficultyinadjustingthemselvestoreality.Manystudentsfinddoingtemporaryjobsisagoodwaytosolvetheproblem.Whileworking,theylearnhowtodealwithdifferentkindsofpeopleandsituations.Gradually,theyincreasetheirknowledgeanddeepentheirunderstandingofsociety.OneofmyclassmatestaughtEnglishtoseniormiddleschoolstudentsinhishometownduringthelastsummervacation.Thefirstdifficultyhemetwithwastofindaclassroom.Hisrequestofusingaclassroominamiddleschoolwasturneddown.However,hedidnotloseheartandtriedhardtofindsomeotherplace.Later,withthehelpofaformerteacherofhis,hesucceeded.Temporaryjobscanalsohelpstudentsimprovetheiracademicstudies.Myownexperienceisanexample.Duringthelastwintervacation,afriendaskedmetohelphimimprovehisabilitytounderstandspokenEnglish.WhenIsawtheteachingmaterial,Ifeltalittlefrightened.ForitwassomethinglikeTOEFL,andIhadnothadanypracticalexperiencewithit.However,Iacceptedthejob.Everytimebeforeteachinghim,Iwouldlistentothetapeagainandagaininordertogeteverythingclear.Itwastimeconsumingandtroublesome.ButlaterIfoundmyownlisteningcomprehensionimprovedtoo.Ifoneworksasatutor,heoughttounderstandeverythinginthetextsheisteaching,orhemaynotbeabletoanswerthestudent'squestions.Ifoneservesasatourguide,heshouldknowsomethingaboutplacesofhistoricinterestandscenicbeauty.Whateverjobitmaybe,onehastolearninordertobequalified.Part-timejobscanalsoprovidestudentswithpocketmoney.Nowadays,theexpensesofcollegestudentsarehigh.Theyspend60to70yuanpermonthontheaverage.Girlstudentsliketohavesomefashionableclothes,whileboystudentswantgoodsneakersandT-shirts.Thepayfortemporaryjobscanhelpcovertheexpenses.Besides,doingtemporaryjobsmakesstudentsfeelself-reliant."IfeelratherashamedeverytimeIreceivemoneyfromhome.I'mnolongerachild,yetIstillhavetobesupportedbymyparents"-suchwordsareoftenheardoncampus.Youngpeopletalkalotaboutindependence.Theyareawareifoneisnoteconomicallyindependent,onecannotenjoytrueindependence.Recently,areportinChinaYouthsaidthataboutonefifthofthecountry'scollegestudentshavedoneoraredoingtemporaryjobs,andastheeconomicreformisgoingon,thenumberisincreasing.Today,whenpeoplehearthatastudentisdoinga

108temporaryjob,theynolongerthinkhemustbeshortofmoney,butlookathimwithapproval.-Student(2)DivisionandClassificationDivisionandclassificationaretwodifferentwaysofsortingthingsout.Divisionisusedtodealwithonething.Itspurposeistoseparatethatthingintoparts.Forexample,apairofglassescanbedividedintotheframeandthelens,andacomposition,intointroduction,body,andconclusion.Classification,ontheotherhand,isusedtoorganizethingswhichsharecertainqualities.Itspurposeistogroupthesethingssystematically.Forexample,coursesincollegecanbeclassifiedinto"elective"and"required/obligatory",orintothosetaughtinthenativelanguageandthoseofferedinforeignlanguages.Thesamegroupofthingsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtodifferentprinciples.Divisionandclassificationareusefulorganizationalstrategiesinwriting.Theformerstressesthedistinctionbetweenthings,whereasthelatteremphasizesthesimilarities.Thetwomethodscanbeusedseparately,buttheyoftengotogether.Divisiondealswiththewholeandclassification,theparts.Thewholeiscomposedofparts,andpartsmakeupthewhole;thewholeandthepartsarecloselyrelated.Whenusingdivisionorclassificationinyourwriting,keepinmindthefollowingguidelines:1)Chooseanappropriateprincipleofdivision/classificationsuitedtoyourpurpose.Thingsaredividedorclassifiedaccordingtothewriter'spurposeorinterests.Thusabodyofstudentsmaybeclassifiedintomaleandfemale,ormajorsofnaturalsciences,socialsciences,etc.Ifthewriter'spurposeistoshowthedifficultiesChinesestudentshaveinpronunciation,hemaywellclassifythemonthebasisofthedialectstheyspeakratherthantheirplacesoforiginortheprovincestheycomefrom.Forpeoplespeakingthesamedialecttendtohavesimilarinaccuraciesinpronunciation.Besurethatyourprincipleofdivision/classificationisinterestingandsignificant.Adivisionofpeopleaccordingtotheirweightmaybeabsurdunlessyouintendtodiscusshowdifferentcategoriesrespondtocertainmedicinethedosageofwhichdependsonaperson'sweight.2)Applyyourprincipleconsistentlyandthoroughly,andavoidoverlapping.Yourcategoriesshouldbedividedaccordingtooneprinciplethroughout.Abodyofpeoplemaybedividedaccordingtosex,race,nationality,occupation,interests,religiousbelief,familybackground,socioeconomicbackground,attitudetowardwork/marriage,etc.ItisfaultytocategorizedelegatesataconferenceintoEuropeans,Africans,Canadians,Somalis,Chinese,andblacks.Forthefirsttwocategoriesarebasedongeographical/regionaldistinction,andthelastcategory,onrace,whereasthethreecategoriesinbetween,onnationality.Furthermore,thereisoverlappingofcategories,sinceSomalisareatonceAfricansandblacks.Rememberoneitemcan

109belongtoonlyonecategory.Itisalsofaultytosay"Attheconferenceweredelegatesfromeverycontinentoftheworld-Asia,Europe,Africa,NorthAmerica,andSouthAmerica",foronecontinent,Oceaniaisleftout.Itisoftendifficult,evenimpossible,tobethorough,andunnecessarytobeall-inclusive.Youmayusesuchwordsas"andother..."or"etc."toshowyouareawarethatyourdivision/classificationisnotcomplete,butyoudonotintendtobeexhaustive.ModelsA.PracticalandPoeticPeopleAsimpleexperimentwilldistinguishtwotypesofhumannature.Gatherathrongofpeopleandpourthemintoaferry-boat.Bythetimetheboathasswungintotheriveryouwillfindthatacertainproportionhavetakenthetroubletoclimbupstairs,inordertobeoutondeckandseewhatistobeseenastheycrossover.Theresthavesettledindoors,tothinkwhattheywilldouponreachingtheotherside,orperhapslosethemselvesinapathyortobaccosmoke.Butleavingoutthoseapathetic,oraddictedtoasingleenjoyment,wemaydivideallthealertpassengersontheboatintotwoclasses-thosewhoareinterestedincrossingtheriver,andthosewhoaremerelyinterestedingettingacross.Andwemaydivideallthepeopleontheearth,orallthemoodsofpeople,inthesameway.Someofthemarechieflyoccupiedwithattainingends,andsomewithreceivingexperiences.Thedistinctionofthetwowillbemoremarkedwhenwenamethefirstkindpractical,andthesecondpoetic,forcommonknowledgerecognizesthatapersonpoeticorinapoeticmoodisimpractical,andapracticalpersonisintolerantofpoetry.Wecanseetheforceofthisintolerancetoo,andhowdeeplyitisjustified,ifwemakecleartoourmindsjustwhatitmeanstobepractical,andwhatagreatthingitis.Itmeanstobecontrolledinyourdoingsbytheconsiderationofendsyetunattained.Thepracticalmanisneverdistractedbythings,oraspectsofthings,whichhavenobearingonhispurpose,but,everseizingthesignificanthemoveswithasinglemindandasingleemotiontowardthegoal.Andevenwhenthegoalisachievedyouwillhardlyseehimpausetorejoiceinit;heisalreadyonhiswaytoanotherachievement.Forthatistheironyofhisnature.Hisjoyisnotinanyconquestordestination,buthisjoyisingoingtowardit.Towhichjoyheaddsthepleasureofbeingpraisedasapracticalman,andamanwhowillarrive.Inamoreusualsense,perhaps,apracticalmanisamanoccupiedwithattainingcertainendsthatpeopleconsiderimportant.Hemuststickprettyclosetothebusinessoffeedingandpreservinglife.Nourishmentandshelter,money-making,maintainingrespectability,andifpossibleafamily-thesearethethingsthatgiveitscommonmeaningtotheword"practical."Anacuteregardforsuchfeaturesofthescenery,andtheuniverse,ascontributeorcanbemadetocontributetotheseends,andasystematicneglectofallotherfeatures,arethetraitsofmindwhichthiswordpopularlysuggests.Anditisbecauseofthevitalimportanceofthesethingstoalmostallpeoplethattheword"practical"isaeulogy,andisabletobesoscornfulofthe

110word"poetic.""Itisanearnestthingtobealiveinthisworld.Withcompetition,withwar,withdiseaseandpovertyandoppression,misfortuneanddeathoncoming,whobutfoolswillgiveseriousattentiontowhatisnotsignificanttothebusiness?"Yes-butwhatistheuseofbeingaliveintheworld,iflifeissooppressiveinitsmoralcharacterthatwemustalwayshebusygettingsomewhere,andneversimplyrealizingwhereweare?Whatwerethevalueofyoureternalachieving,ifwewerenothereonourholidaytoappreciate,amongotherthings,someofthethingsyouhaveachieved?"Thus,ifwecoulddiscoverapurelypoeticandapurelypracticalperson,mighttheyreasontogether.Butwecandiscovernothingsosatisfactorytoourdefinitions,andthereforeletusconcludethediscussionofthedifferencebetweenthem.Ithasledustoourownend-aclearerunderstandingofthenatureofpoeticpeople,andofallpeoplewhentheyareinapoeticmood.Theyareloversofthequalitiesofthings.Theyarenotengaged,asthelearnedsaythatalllifeis,inbecomingadjustedtoanenvironment,buttheyareengagedinbecomingacquaintedwithit.Theyarepossessedbytheimpulsetorealize,animpulseasdeep,andarbitrary,andunexplainedasthat"willtolive"whichliesatthebottomofalltheexplanations.Itseemsbutthemanifestation,indeed,ofthatwillitselfinaconcreteandpositiveform.Itisawishtoexperiencelifeandtheworld.Thatistheessenceofthepoetictemper.-MaxEastmanB.Colorful,Colored,andColorlessWordsThewriterbuildswithwords,andnobuilderusesarawmaterialmoreslipperyandelusiveandtreacherous.Awriter'sworkisaconstantstruggletogettherightwordintherightplace,tofindthatparticularwordthatwillconveyhismeaningexactly,thatwillpersuadethereaderorsoothehimorstartleoramusehim.Heneversucceedsaltogether-sometimeshefeelsthathescarcelysucceedsatall-butsuchsuccessesashehasarewhatmakethethingworthdoing.Thereisnobookofrulesforthisgame.Oneprogressesthroughever-lastingexperimentonthebasisofever-wideningexperience.Therearefewusefulgeneralizationsthatonecanmakeaboutwordsaswords,butthereareperhapsafew.Somewordsarewhatwecall"colorful."Bythiswemeanthattheyarecalculatedtoproduceapictureorinduceanemotion.Theyaredressyinsteadofplain,specificinsteadofgeneral,loudinsteadofsoft.Thus,inplaceof"Herheartbeat,"wemaywrite"Herheartpounded,throbbed,fluttered,danced."Insteadof"Hesatinhischair,"wemaysay,"Helounged,sprawled,coiled."Insteadof"Itwashot,"wemaysay,"Itwasblistering,sultry,muggy,suffocating,steaming,wilting."However,itshouldnotbesupposedthatthefancywordisalwaysbetter.Oftenitisaswelltowrite."Herheartbeat"or"Itwashot"ifthatisallitdidorallitwas.Agesdifferinhowtheyliketheirprose.Thenineteenthcenturylikeditrichandsmoky.Thetwentiethhasusuallypreferreditleanandcool.Thetwentiethcenturywriter,likeallwriters,isforeverseekingtheexactword,butheiswaryofsoundingfeverish.He

111tendstopitchitlow,tounderstateit,tothrowitaway.Heknowsthatifhegetstoocolorful,theaudienceislikelytogiggle.Seehowthisstrikesyou:"Astherich,goldenglowofthesunsetdiedawayalongtheeternalwesternhills,Angela'slimpidblueeyeslookedsoftlyandtrustinglyintoMontague'sflashingbrownones,andherheartpoundedlikeadrumintimewiththejoyoussongsurginginhersoul."Somepeoplelikethatsortofthing,butmostmodernreaderswouldsay,"Goodgrief,"andturnonthetelevision.Somewordswewouldcallnotsomuchcolorfulascolored-thatis,loadedwithassociations,goodorbad.Allwords-exceptperhapsstructurewords-haveassociationsofsomesort.Wehavesaidthatthemeaningofawordisthesumofthecontextsinwhichitoccurs.Whenwehearaword,wehearwithitanechoofallthesituationsinwhichwehavehearditbefore.Insomewords,theseechoesareobviousanddiscussable.Thewordmother,forexample,has,formostpeople,agreeableassociations.Whenyouhearmotheryouprobablythinkofhome,safety,love,food,andvariousotherpleasantthings.Ifonewrites,"Shewaslikeamothertome,"hegetsaneffectwhichhewouldnotgetin"Shewaslikeanaunttome."Theadvertisermakesuseoftheassociationsofmotherbyworkingitinwhenhetalksabouthisproduct.Thepoliticianworksitinwhenhetalksabouthimself.Soalsowithsuchwordsashome,liberty,fireside,contentment,patriot,tenderness,sacrifice,childlike,manly,bluff,limpid.Allofthesewordsareloadedwithfavorableassociationsthatwouldberatherhardtoindicateinastraightforwarddefinition.Thereismorethanaliteraldifferencebetween"Theysataroundthefireside"and"Theysataroundthestove."Theymighthavebeenequallywarmandhappyaroundthestove,butfiresidesuggestsleisure,grace,quiettradition,congenialcompany,andstovedoesnot.Conversely,somewordshavebadassociations.Mothersuggestspleasantthings,butmother-in-lawdoesnot.Manymothers-in-lawareheroicallylovableandsomemothersdrinkginalldayandbeattheirchildreninsensible,butthesefactsoflifearebesidethepoint.Thethingisthatmothersoundsgoodandmother-in-lawdoesnot.Orconsiderthewordintellectual.Thiswouldseemtobeacomplimentaryterm,butinpointoffactitisnot,forithaspickedupassociationsofimpracticalityandineffectualityandgeneraldopiness.Soalsowithsuchwordsasliberal,reactionary.Communist,socialist,capitalist,radical,schoolteacher,truckdriver,undertaker,operator,salesman,huckster,speculator.Theseconveymeaningsontheliterallevel,butbeyondthat-sometimes,insomeplaces-theyconveycontemptonthepartofthespeaker.Thequestionofwhethertouseloadedwordsornotdependsonwhatisbeingwritten.Thescientist,thescholar,trytoavoidthem;forthepoet,theadvertisingwriter,thepublicspeaker,theyarestandardequipment.Buteverywritershouldtakecarethattheydonotsubstituteforthought.Ifyouwrite,"AnyonewhothinksthatisnothingbutaSocialist(orCommunistorcapitalist)"youhavesaidnothingexceptthatyoudon'tlikepeoplewhothinkthat,andsuchremarksareeffectiveonlywiththemostnaivereaders.Itisalwaysabadmistaketothinkyourreadersaremorenaivethanthey

112reallyare.Butprobablymoststudentwriterscometogriefnotwithwordsthatarecolorfulorthosethatarecoloredbutwiththosethathavenocoloratall.Apetexampleisnice,awordwewouldfindithardtodispensewithincasualconversationbutwhichisnolongercapableofaddingmuchtoadescription.Colorlesswordsarethoseofsuchgeneralmeaningthatinaparticularsentencetheymeannothing.Slangadjectives,likecool("That'srealcool"),tendtoexplodealloverthelanguage.Theyareappliedtoeverything,losetheiroriginalforce,andquicklydie.Bewarealsoofnounsofverygeneralmeaning,likecircumstances,cases,instances,aspects,factors,relationships,attitudes,eventualities,etc.Inmostcircumstancesyouwillfindthatthosecasesofwritingwhichcontaintoomanyinstancesofwordslikethesewillinthisandotheraspectshavefactorsleadingtounsatisfactoryrelationshipswiththereaderresultinginunfavorableattitudesonhispartandperhapsothereventualities,likeagradeof"D."Noticealsowhat"etc."means.Itmeans"I'dliketomakethislistlonger,butIcan'tthinkofanymoreexamples."-PaulRobertsC.WhatWeWantfromSportsStudentsinourschoolhaveonethingincommon-aninterestinsports.Accordingtotheirdifferentintentionsintakingpartinsports,theyfallintothreegroups.Manystudentsgototheplaygroundwhentheyfeeltiredafterafewhoursofstudy.Thesestudentsputmuchmorestressontheirstudyefficiencythanthefunofsports.Theyjustwanttogobacktotheirclassroomsfromtheplaygroundwithaclearerandquickermind.Thustheydon'tactuallycarewhethertheycanenjoythemselvesontheplayground.Mostofthemchooselong-distancerunning,thekindofexercisewhichfewrealsportsenthusiastslike.Sothisgroupofstudentscanbewelllabelledasstudy-orientedparticipants.Studentsthatmakeupthesecondgrouparerealsportslovers.Sometimestheyevenputasidetheirstudiesforamatch.Theytakepartinthesportthatintereststhemmost,notcaringwhetheritismostbeneficialtotheirhealth.Theymaybecalledfun-orientedsportsparticipants.Thethirdgroupwantbeautyfromsports.Boyswanttobecomestrong;girlswanttobeslimandgraceful.Thosewhoconsidersportstheonlywayofreducingweightalsobelongtothisgroup.Theyareverycarefulinchoosingthekindofexercisetheydo,andareafraidthatcertainsportsmayruintheirfigures.Horizontalbarsandparallelbarsaretheboys'choice,andthehulahoopisnowthegirls'favorite.Theappropriatenameforthisgroupmaybebeauty-orientedsportsparticipants.Nomatterwhichgroupwebelongto,weallbenefitfromsports.Ifyoulookaroundthecampus,youwillfindthatbookwormshavedisappeared,and,instead,therearehealthy,strong,clever,modernizedstudentseverywhere.-Student

113(3)ComparisonandContrastAcomparisonexplainshowthingsaresimilar,andacontrast,howtheyaredifferent.Peoplemakecomparisonsandcontrastseveryday,thoughtheymaynotbeawareofit.Atschool,ateachermayexplaintheBritishParliamentbycomparingitwithChina'sPeople'sCongress,orhemaycompareandcontrasttheBritishParliamentwiththeU.S.Congresstoshowtheirsimilaritiesanddifferences.Inashop,theshopassistantmaycontrasttwoproductstoshowthesuperiorityofonetotheother.Atabookstore,astudentmaycompareandcontrastthesimilaritiesanddifferencesoftwodictionariesinordertodecidewhichonetobuy.Similarly,whenyouwriteacomparison/contrastpaper,youexplainorclarifyforoneofthethreefollowingpurposes:1)Topresentinformationaboutsomethingunfamiliarbycomparingitwithsomethingfamiliar;2)Toshowthesuperiorityofonethingbycomparingitwithanother;and3)Toshowthereaderofthesimilaritiesanddifferencesoftwothingstohelpthereaderunderstandorevaluatethem.Apapermaydealentirelywithsimilarities(comparisons)orwithdifferences(contrasts).However,comparisonandcontrastoftengotogetherinanessay,perhapswithstressononeortheother.Whenyouwriteacomparison/contrastpaper,keepinmindthefollowingprinciplesofselectionanddevelopment:1)Onlyitems(usuallytwo)ofthesamegeneralclasscanbecompared/contrasted.Thereishardlyanysenseincomparingorcontrastingananimalwithamineral.Generally,comparisonsaremadebetweentwoseeminglydifferentitems,andcontrasts,betweentwoseeminglysimilaritems.Agoodcomparison/contrastessaytellsthereadernottheobviousbutthesignificantsimilaritiesanddifferenceswhichpeoplemayneglectoroverlook.2)Acomparison/contrastessayusuallyfollowsoneofthesetwopatterns:thesubject-by-subjectpatternorthepoint-by-pointpattern.Inthesubject-by-subjectpattern,thewriterdiscussesthevariousaspectsofoneitembeforegoingontotheother.Thesisstatement:XisabetterschoolthanY.Ⅰ.XA.StudentbodyB.TeachingstaffC.LibraryandotherfacilitiesD.CampusⅡ.YA.StudentbodyB.TeachingstaffC.LibraryandotherfacilitiesD.Campus

114Inthepoint-by-pointpattern,thewriterdiscussesbothitemsundereachofthevariousaspectscompared/contrasted.Ⅰ.StudentbodyA.XB.YⅡ.TeachingstaffA.XB.YⅢ.LibraryandotherfacilitiesA.XB.YⅣ.CampusA.XB.YIngeneral,thesubject-by-subjectpatternworksbetterinshortessayswherefewaspectsareconsidered,orwherethewriter'sinterestisinthewhole.Thepoint-by-pointpatternispreferableinlongessayswheremanyaspectsarementioned,foralongdiscussionofthevariousaspectsofoneitemputstoomuchburdenonthereader'smemory.However,apapermayusebothpatternsasisshowninthesampleessays.3)Thecomparison/contrastshouldbebalanced;thetwoitemsbeingcompared/contrastedaretobegivenequaltreatment.Inthesubject-by-subjectpattern,eachsubtopicinPartImustalsobediscussedinPartⅡ,notonlyinthesameorderbutpreferablyinthesamenumberofparagraphs.Acommonfaultincomparison/contrastistodiscussoneitemmorefullyorinmoreaspectsthantheother(ⅠA,B,C,D;ⅡA,B).Itisthereforeadvisabletoprepareanoutlineatthebeginning.Sometimes,apaperdevelopedaccordingtothesubject-by-subjectpatternmayreadliketwoseparateessays.Toavoidthis,thewritercanusesuchwordsorphrasesaslike/unlike,as,instead(of),comparedwith,incontrast(to/with),etc.Thesewordshelpnotonlytoachieveunitybutalsotorefreshthereader'smemoryandremindhimoftheitembeingcompared/contrasted.Tothepoint-by-pointpattern,mostoftheprinciplesforthesubject-by-subjectpatternarealsoapplicable.Thewritershoulduseaconsistentorderandmakeaconsistentarrangementofparagraphs.Themajordifferenceisthatremindersarenotasimportantasinthesubject-by-subjectpattern.Sometransitionsusedincomparisonare:both,each,atthesametime,similarly,like,likewise,as,too,also,andcomparedwith.Sometransitionsusedincontrastare:ontheotherhand,onthecontrary,incontrast(with/to),instead(of),theopposite(of),unlike,although,while,whereas,but,however,yet,andnevertheless.4)Thecomparison/contrastshouldbesupportedbyconcreteandrelevantfacts.Generalitiescanneverconvincethereader;vagueandindefinitestatementsreveal

115onlythesuperficialnessofthepaper.Comparison/contrastgainseffectivenessandpowerfromspecificexamples,orparticulardetailsbroughtintoobservationandanalysis.5)Acomparison/contrastshowssimilaritiesanddifferencesinordertomakeaparticularpoint.Whenawritercompares/contraststwoitems,hehasapurposeinmind,whichisactuallyhisthesis.HemayintendtoshowthatXisbetterornobetterthanY,XisasusefulasY,orthoughXisdifferentfromY,botharegoodornecessary.Analogyisaspecialkindofcomparison.Insteadofshowingthesimilaritiesbetweentwothingsofthesameclass,analogyshowsthesimilaritiesbetweentwothingsofdifferentclass.WhenawritercomparesX,aperson'slife,toY,ajourneyonlandorwater,heisusingananalogytoexplainanddeepenthereader'sunderstandingofX.UnlikeacomparisonwhichgivesequalandbalancedtreatmenttobothXandY,ananalogyusesYtoexplainX.Theguidelinesforanalogiesare:1)Thetwoitemsoftheanalogyarenotofthesameclass.2)Oneoftheitemsisusedonlytoexplaintheother.3)Theitemusedtoclarifytheothermustbeonequitefamiliartothereaderandwillthereforehelphimunderstandtheother.4)Ananalogyisusedtosupportaparticularpoint.5)Ananalogyprovidesonlyanewinsightorperspective;itcannotbeusedtoproveanything.ModelsA.EducationandTrainingTounderstandthenatureoftheliberalartscollegeanditsfunctioninoursociety,itisimportanttounderstandthedifferencebetweeneducationandtraining.Trainingisintendedprimarilyfortheserviceofsociety;educationisprimarilyfortheindividual.Societyneedsdoctors,lawyers,engineers,teacherstoperformspecifictasksnecessarytoitsoperation,justasitneedscarpentersandplumbersandstenographers.Trainingsuppliestheimmediateandspecificneedsofsocietysothattheworkoftheworldmaycontinue.Andtheseneeds,ourtrainingcenters-theprofessionalandtradeschools-fill.Butalthougheducationisfortheimprovementoftheindividual,italsoservessocietybyprovidingaleaveningofmenofunderstanding,ofperception,andwisdom.Theyareourintellectualleaders,thecriticsofourculture,thedefendersofourfreetraditions,theinstigatorsofourprogress.Theyservesocietybyexaminingitsfunction,appraisingitsneeds,andcriticizingitsdirection.Theymaybeearningtheirlivingsbypracticingoneoftheprofessions,orinpursuingatrade,orbyengaginginbusinessenterprise.Theymayberichorpoor.Theymayoccupypositionsofpowerandprestige,ortheymaybeengagedinsomehumbleemployment.Withoutthem,however,societyeitherdisintegratesorelsebecomesan

116anthill.ThedifferencebetweenthetwotypesofstudyislikethedifferencebetweenthedisciplineandexerciseinaprofessionalbaseballtrainingcampandthatofaYgym.Intheone,therecruitistrainingtobecomeaprofessionalbaseballplayerwhowillmakealivingandservesocietybyplayingbaseball;intheother,heistrainingonlytoimprovehisownbodyandmusculature.Thetrainingatthebaseballcampisallrelevant.Therecruitmayspendhourspracticinghowtoslideintosecondbase,notbecauseitisaparticularlyusefulformofcalisthenicsbutbecauseitisrelevanttothegame.Theexercisewouldstopiftheruleswerechangedsothatslidingtoabasewasmadeillegal.Similarly,thecandidateforthepitchingstaffspendsalotoftimethrowingabaseball,notbecauseitwillimprovehisphysique-itmayhavequitetheoppositeeffect-butbecausepitchingistobehisprincipalfunctionontheteam.AttheYgym,exerciseshavenosuchrelevance.Theintentionistostrengthenthebodyingeneral,andwhenthememberssitdownonthefloorwiththeirlegsoutstretchedandpracticetouchingtheirfingerstotheirtoes,itisnotbecausetheyhopetobecomegalleyslaves,perhapstheonlyoccupationwherethatparticularexercisewouldberelevant.Ingeneral,relevancyisafacetoftrainingratherthanofeducation.Whatistaughtatlawschoolisthepresentlawoftheland,nottheNapoleonicCodeoreventhearchaiclawsthathavebeenscratchedfromthestatutebooks.Andatmedicalschool,too,itismodernmedicalpracticethatistaught,thatwhichisrelevanttoconditionstoday.Andtheplumberandthecarpenterandtheelectricianandthemasonlearnonlywhatisrelevanttothepracticeoftheirrespectivetradesinthisdaywiththetoolsandmaterialsthatarepresentlyavailableandthatconformtothebuildingcode.Intheliberalartscollege,ontheotherhand,thestudentisencouragedtoexplorenewfieldsandoldfields,towanderdownthebypathsofknowledge.Theretheteachingisconcernedwithmajorprinciples,anditspurposeistochangethestudent,tomakehimsomethingdifferentfromwhathewasbefore,justasthepurposeoftheYgymistomakeafatmanintoathinone,orastrongoneoutofaweakone.Clearlythetwotypesoflearningoverlap.Justasthebaseballrecruitgetsridofexcessweightandtightenshismusclesatthebaseballcampandtherebyprofitsevenifhedoesnotmaketheteam,sothelawstudentsharpenshismindandbroadenshisunderstanding,evenifhesubsequentlyfailsthebarexamandgoesontomakehislivinginanentirelydifferentkindofwork.Hisstudyoflawgiveshimanunderstandingoftherulesunderwhichoursocietyfunctionsandhispracticeinsolvinglegalproblemsgiveshimanunderstandingoffinedistinctions.Ontheotherhand,theYmember,whoseoriginalreasonforjoiningmayhavebeensolelytogethimselfinshape,maygetcaughtupintheinstitution'sbaseballprogramandfindthathisskillhasdevelopedtothepointwherehecanplaythegameprofessionally.Similarly,thestudentwhoundertakesacourseofstudymerelybecauseitinterestshimandhewantstoknowmoreaboutitmayfindthatithascommercialvalue.Hehasstudiedaforeignlanguageandliteratureinordertounderstandthesocietythatproducedit,andthenhemayfindthathisspecialknowledgeenableshimtogetajobasatranslator.Orhemayfindthatwhilehisknowledgeofchemistryisnotofprofessionalcaliber,itisstillsufficienttogivehim

117preferenceinaparticularjoboversomeonewholackseventhatmodicumofknowledgeofthesubject.Buttheseareaccidentalandincidental.Ingeneral,certaincoursesofstudyarefortheserviceofsocietyandothercoursesareforself-improvement.Inthehierarchyofoureducationalsystem,theformerarethefunctionofourprofessionalschoolsandthelatterarethefunctionofthecollegeofliberalarts.-HarryKemelmanB.GrantandLee:AStudyinContrastsWhenUlyssesS.GrantandRobertE.LeemetintheparlorofamodesthouseatAppomattoxCourtHouse,Virginia,onApril9,1865,toworkoutthetermsforthesurrenderofLee'sArmyofNorthernVirginia,agreatchapterinAmericanlifecametoaclose,andagreatnewchapterbegan.ThesemenwerebringingtheCivilWartoitsvirtualfinish.Tobesure,otherarmieshadyettosurrender,andforafewdaysthefugitiveConfederategovernmentwouldstruggledesperatelyandvainly,tryingtofindsomewaytogoonlivingnowthatitschiefsupportwasgone.ButineffectitwasalloverwhenGrantandLeesignedthepapers.Andthelittleroomwheretheywroteoutthetermswasthesceneofoneofthepoignant,dramaticcontrastsinAmericanhistory.Theyweretwostrongmen,theseoddlydifferentgenerals,andtheyrepresentedthestrengthsoftwoconflictingcurrentsthat,throughthem,hadcomeintofinalcollision.BackofRobertE.LeewasthenotionthattheoldaristocraticconceptmightsomehowsurviveandbedominantinAmericanlife.LeewastidewaterVirginia,andinhisbackgroundwerefamily,culture,andtradition...theageofchivalrytransplantedtoaNewWorldwhichwasmakingitsownlegendsanditsownmyths.HeembodiedawayoflifethathadcomedownthroughtheageofknighthoodandtheEnglishcountrysquire.Americawasalandthatwasbeginningalloveragain,dedicatedtonothingmuchmorecomplicatedthantheratherhazybeliefthatallmenhadequalrights,andshouldhaveanequalchanceintheworld.InsuchalandLeestoodforthefeelingthatitwassomehowofadvantagetohumansocietytohaveapronouncedinequalityinthesocialstructure.Thereshouldbealeisureclass,backedbyownershipofland;inturn,societyitselfshouldbekeyedtothelandasthechiefsourceofwealthandinfluence.Itwouldbringforth(accordingtothisideal)aclassofmenwithastrongsenseofobligationtothecommunity;menwholived,nottogainadvantageforthemselves,buttomeetthesolemnobligationswhichhadbeenlaidonthembytheveryfactthattheywereprivileged.Fromthemthecountrywouldgetitsleadership;tothemitcouldlookforthehighervalues-ofthought,ofconduct,ofpersonaldeportment-togiveitstrengthandvirtue.Leeembodiedthenoblestelementsofthisaristocraticideal.Throughhim,thelandednobilityjustifieditself.Forfouryears,theSouthernstateshadfoughtadesperatewartoupholdtheidealsforwhichLeestood.Intheend,italmostseemedasiftheConfederacyfoughtforLee;asifhehimselfwastheConfederacy...thebestthing

118thatthewayoflifeforwhichtheConfederacystoodcouldeverhavetooffer.HehadpassedintolegendbeforeAppomattox.Thousandsoftired,underfed,poorlyclothedConfederatesoldiers,long-sincepastthesimpleenthusiasmoftheearlydaysofAtstruggle,somehowconsideredLeethesymbolofeverythingforwhichtheyhadbeenwillingtodie.Buttheycouldnotquiteputthisfeelingintowords.IftheLostCause,sanctifiedbysomuchheroismandsomanydeaths,hadalivingjustification,itsjustificationwasGeneralLee.Grant,thesonofatannerontheWesternfrontier,waseverythingLeewasnot.Hehadcomeupthehardway,andembodiednothinginparticularexcepttheeternaltoughnessandsinewyfiberofthemenwhogrewupbeyondthemountains.Hewasoneofabodyofmenwhoowedreverenceandobeisancetonoone,whowereself-relianttoafault,whocaredhardlyanythingforthepastbutwhohadasharpeyeforthefuture.Thesefrontiermenwerethepreciseoppositesofthetidewateraristocrats.Backofthem,inthegreatsurgethathadtakenpeopleovertheAllegheniesandintotheopeningWesterncountry,therewasadeep,implicitdissatisfactionwithapastthathadsettledintogrooves.Theystoodfordemocracy,notfromanyreasonedconclusionabouttheproperorderingofhumansociety,butsimplybecausetheyhadgrownupinthemiddleofdemocracyandknewhowitworked.Theirsocietymighthaveprivileges,buttheywouldbeprivilegeseachmanhadwonforhimself.Formsandpatternsmeantnothing.Nomanwasborntoanything,exceptperhapstoachancetoshowhowfarhecouldrise.Lifewascompetition.Yetalongwiththisfeelinghadcomeadeepsenseofbelongingtoanationalcommunity.TheWesternerwhodevelopedafarm,openedashoporsetupinbusinessasatrader,couldhopetoprosperonlyashisowncommunityprospered-andhiscommunityranfromtheAtlantictothePacificandfromCanadadowntoMexico.Ifthelandwassettled,withtownsandhighwaysandaccessiblemarkets,hecouldbetterhimself.Hesawhisfateintermsofthenation'sowndestiny.Asitshorizonsexpanded,sodidhis.Hehad,inotherwords,anacutedollars-and-centsstakeinthecontinuedgrowthanddevelopmentofhiscountry.Andthat,perhaps,iswherethecontrastbetweenGrantandLeebecomesmoststriking.TheVirginiaaristocrat,inevitably,sawhimselfinrelationtohisownregion.Helivedinastaticsocietywhichcouldendurealmostanythingexceptchange.Instinctively,hisfirstloyaltywouldgotothelocalityinwhichthatsocietyexisted.Hewouldfighttothelimitofendurancetodefendit,becauseindefendingithewasdefendingeverythingthatgavehisownlifeitsdeepestmeaning.TheWesterner,ontheotherhand,wouldfightwithanequaltenacityforthebroaderconceptofsociety.Hefoughtsobecauseeverythinghelivedbywastiedtogrowth,expansion,andaconstantlywideninghorizon.Whathelivedbywouldsurviveorfallwiththenationitself.HecouldnotpossiblystandbyunmovedinthefaceofanattempttodestroytheUnion.Hewouldcombatitwitheverythinghehad,becausehecouldonlyseeitasanefforttocutthegroundoutfromunderhisfeet.SoGrantandLeewereincompletecontrast,representingtwodiametricallyopposedelementsinAmericanlife.Grantwasthemodernmanemerging;beyondhim,ready

119tocomeonthestage,wasthegreatageofsteelandmachinery,ofcrowdedcitiesandarestless,burgeoningvitality.Leemighthaveriddendownfromtheoldageofchivalry,lanceinhand,silkenbannerflutteringoverhishead.Eachmanwastheperfectchampionofhiscause,drawingbothhisstrengthsandhisweaknessesfromthepeopleheled.Yetitwasnotallcontrast,afterall.Differentastheywere-inbackgroundandpersonality,inunderlyingaspiration-thesetwogreatsoldiershadmuchincommon.Undereverythingelse,theyweremarvelousfighters.Furthermore,theirfightingqualitieswerereallyverymuchalike.Eachmanhad,tobeginwith,thegreatvirtueofuttertenacityandfidelity.GrantfoughthiswaydowntheMississippiValleyinspiteofacutepersonaldiscouragementandprofoundmilitaryhandicaps.LeehungoninthetrenchesatPetersburgafterhopeitselfhaddied.Ineachmantherewasanindomitablequality...thebornfighter'srefusaltogiveupaslongashecanstillremainonhisfeetandlifthistwofists.Daringandresourcefulnesstheyhad,too;theabilitytothinkfasterandmovefasterthantheenemy.ThesewerethequalitieswhichgaveLeethedazzlingcampaignsofSecondManassasandChancellorsvilleandwonVicksburgforGrant.Lastly,andperhapsgreatestofall,therewastheability,attheend,toturnquicklyfromwartopeaceoncethefightingwasover.OutofthewaythesetwomenbehavedatAppomattoxcamethepossibilityofapeaceofreconciliation.Itwasapossibilitynotwhollyrealized,intheyearstocome,butwhichdid,intheend,helpthetwosectionstobecomeonenationagain...afterawarwhosebitternessmighthaveseemedtomakesuchareunionwhollyimpossible.Nopartofeitherman'slifebecamehimmorethanthepartheplayedintheirbriefmeetingintheMcLeanhouseatAppomattox.TheirbehaviorthereputallsucceedinggenerationsofAmericansintheirdebt.TwogreatAmericans,GrantandLee-verydifferent,yetundereverythingverymuchalike.TheirencounteratAppomattoxwasoneofthegreatmomentsofAmericanhistory.-BruceCattonC.EatingandReadingAsacreature,Ieat;asaman,Iread.Althoughoneactionistomeettheprimaryneedofmybodyandtheotheristosatisfytheintellectualneedofmymind,theyareinawayquitesimilar.Tokeepourselvesalive,weneedallkindsofnutrition.Eatingisthemostimportantwaybywhichwecangetstarch,protein,vitamin,sugar,fat,andsometraceelements.Ontheotherhand,weeatnotonlybecausewehavetodoso,butalsobecauseweenjoydoingso.Havingsatisfiedourhunger,eatingcanthenbeakindofenjoyment.Thecolor,thesmell,andthetasteofthefoodareconsideredasimportantasitsuntritivevalue.Veryoftenweeatsomefoodnotbecauseitisnourishingbutsimplybecausewelikeit.Thispartialityforcertainfoodwillnotaffectourhealth,solongaswedonotindulgeheavilyinit.Therearemanypeople,however,whodonoteatthe

120foodtheydislikeandconsequentlysufferfrommalnutrition.So,forthesakeofhealth,wehavetoeatsomefoodeventhoughwemaynotlikeit.Similarly,toenrichourminds,weneedinformationandknowledge,whichcanbeobtainedthroughreading.Readingisoneofthemostimportantwaysoflearning.Withoutreadingourmindswillbecomeemptylikethatofananimal.Sometimes,wetakereadingasapastime,andwerelaxandlearnatthesametime.Sincerecreationisinvolved,wewillnaturallyhaveapartialityforsomeparticularkindsofbooks,justaswedoforcertainkindoffood.Itisallrightifwereadmorebooksonhistorythanbooksonliterature.Butsupposewefocusononesubjectonlyandpaynoattentiontoanythingelse,wewillfacetheproblemofimbalance.Nutritionforourmindsshouldbeascomprehensiveasthenutritionforourbodies.Aneducatedpersonisapersonwhoknowsalotofthingsaboutsomethingandsomethingaboutalotofthings.One'smindneedsallkindsofnourishment,whethertheyaretoone'slikingornot.Besides,thereareothersimilaritiesbetweeneatingandreading.Weshouldnoteattoomuchwithoutdigestingandassimilating,norshouldwereadtoomuchwithoutunderstandingandremembering.Whileweareeating,weshouldleaveouttherottenpartofthefoodwhichwilldoharmtoourhealth;andwhilewearereading,weshouldbeabletorejectthepoisonouscontentinabook,ifany,foritwillpoisonourminds.So,eatsensiblyandreadsensiblytogiveyourselfastrongbodyandahealthymind.-StudentD.BeethovenandLennonLudwigvanBeethovenwasoneofthegreatestmusiciansinthe19thcentury.JohnLennonwasoneofthegreatestmusiciansinthe20thcentury.Althoughthereisaperiod,ofabout200yearsbetweenthem,theyarequitesimilarincertainways.Bothmenexpressedthespiritoftheirtimeintheirmusic.Beethovenlivedintheperiodofrisingcapitalism.Atthattime,peopleweretryingtobreaktheshacklesoffeudalism,andtheywerepursuingfreedom,equality,anduniversallove.Thissocialtrend,especiallytheFrenchrevolution,greatlyinspiredBeethoven.Hismusicwasveryactive,passionate,andvigorous.Someofhisworkspraisedheroism,someconveyedthelovefornature,andsomeextolledharmonyamongpeople.Similarly,Lennon'smusicrevealedhistime.Inthe60sand70s,theyouthinAmericaweredeeplyfrustratedbythediscriminationandinjusticeinthesocietyandwerelongingtobuildanewone.MostofLennon'ssongsexpressedtheideasoftheyouth.Inoneofhissongsentitled"Imagine",hesings,"Imagineallthepeople,livingunderpeace",and"Theworldwilltogetherasone".Thesewordsshowhisanti-warattitudeandhishopeforpeace,reflectthespiritofthe60sand70s.Bothmenweresocialrebelstosomeextent.Theyrefusedtobowtosocialconventionsandpower.Beethovenwasadevotedrepublican.WhenNapoleonIwasinpower,whoclaimedtobeadefenderofrepublicanism,BeethovenadmiredhimsomuchthathededicatedhisSymphonyNo.5,thethemeofwhichisheroism,tohim.ButthenNapoleoncrownedhimselfandbecameanemperor.Beethovenwassoangrythathe

121openlydeclaredhetookbackwhathehadsaidaboutNapoleon,regardlessofpossiblepersecution.Lennonwasalsoconsideredatrouble-makerbytheauthoritiesbecauseofhissupportforyouthmovements.Foratimehewasnotevenallowedtogivepublicperformances.Butheignoredallthisandstucktohisbelief.Asmusicians,bothmenledtogreatleapsinthehistoryofmusic.Beethoven'smaincontributiontomusicwashissymphonies.Itwashewhoclearlydefinedtheformofsymphonyandfullydevelopedit,whichmarkedtheendoftheclassicalperiodandthebeginningoftheromanticperiod.Hisninesymphonies,especiallyNo.5,No.6,andNo.9,areashighlyregardedtodayastheywere100yearsago.Lennon'sachievementwashisrock-and-rollmusic.Heandhisband,theBeetles,successfullycombinedrhythmandblueswithrockmusic,whichlaidthefoundationformodernrock-and-rollmusic.Althoughtheyhadmanythingsincommon,BeethovenandLennonbelongedtodifferentagesandthusweredifferentinmanyways.Beethoven'slifewasfullofdisasterandstruggle.Attheageof29,whenhewasattheclimaxofhiscareer,helosthishearing,whichwasnotverydifferentfromdeathpenaltytoamusician.ButBeethovenmanagedtoovercomethisbarrier,andmiraculouslyhecomposedmostofhismasterpiecesafterhebecamedeaf.Whatamazingwillpower!Lennon'slifewaseasier.Hewasabletoliveincomparativecomfort,forheearnedalotfromhisdiscsandconcerts.HiswaytosuccesswasnotsohardasBeethoven's.Theirendingswerealsoverydifferent.Beethovendiedanaturaldeathattheageof57.ButLennonwasshotin1980byoneofhisfans,whichshockedtheworld.ThenamesofbothBeethovenandLennonareinscribedonthemonumenttothehistoryofmusic.Theywillalwaysberememberedfortheiruniquestyles,greatproductivity,andindomitablepersonalities.-Student(4)CauseandEffectAcause-effectessayisapieceofexpositorywritingshowingorexplainingthecauseand/oreffectofsomething.Whenwewriteacause-effectpaper,weareactuallymakingacausalanalysis.Twoquestionsshouldbeansweredinacausalanalysis:1)Whatisthecauseofsomethingthathashappened?2)Whateffectwillfollowifsomethinghashappened?Inotherwords,acausedealswiththequestion"Why?"andaneffect,thequestion"Whatif?"Inansweringthefirstquestionwereasonfromeffectbackwardtocause,andinansweringthesecond,fromcauseforwardtoeffect.Acausepaperbeginswithanintroductionwhichbrieflydescribestheeffect,andthentheentirebodyofthepaperanalysesthecauses,eachofwhichisgenerallydiscussedinoneparagraph.Aneffectpaperreversetheprocedure.Itbeginswithanintroductiondescribingthecause,andtherestofthepaperdiscussestheeffects.Sometimes,apapermaycontainboththecausesandtheeffectsthing;forexample,

122whenanalyzingChina'ssingle-childpolicy,thewritermaybeginwiththecauses,explainingwhythepolicyisadopted,andthendiscusstheeffectsofthispolicy.Determiningcausesandeffectsisacomplexprocess.Whenwritingthepaper,trytorememberthefollowinglogicalrequirements:1)Donotover-simplifycauses.Mosteffectshavemorethanonecause.Forinstance,astudent'sfailureinanexamisoftentheresultofacombinationofcauses:thestudentisnotinterestedinthecourseandhasmissedmanylectures,wasnotattentiveinclassandtookfewnotes,neglectedtoreadsomeofthereferencebooksassignedbytheteacher,usedawrongmethodofstudy,returnedlatefromapartythenightbeforetheexamanddidnotgetmuchsleep,etc.Ifthestudentascribeshisfailuretohavinggonetoaparty,heisoversimplifyingthecause.2)Bewareespeciallyofmakingamistakeinlogicknownasthefallacyofposthoc,ergopropterhoc-Latinwordsmeaning"afterthisthereforebecauseofthis."Forinstance,ifadiseasebrokeoutsoonafterXbecameMinisterofPublicHealth,wewouldhavemadeamistakeinlogicinsayingthattheepidemicbrokeoutbecauseXwasmademinister.Remembersequenceisnotalwayscausation.3)Distinguishbetweendirectandindirectcausesandeffectsandbetweenmajorandminorcausesandeffects.Sinceaneffectmayhaveseveralcausesandacause,severaleffects,itisimportantthatyourpapershouldnottreatallcausesandeffectsequallybutgivemorespacetomajorones.Whenanalyzingthecausesofawar,historiansoftenmentiontheimmediate(ordirect)causewhichtouchedoffthewarbutstresstheremote(orindirect-causeswhichtheyconsidertobebasic.Forexample,thedirectcauseoftheAmericanCivilWar-theConfederacy'sfiringonFortSumter-wasnotsoimportantasthebasic,underlyingissuesofsecessionandslavery.Similarly,itmaynotbenecessarytofullyexploreboththeimmediateandultimateeffectsofanactionorsituation.Laystressonthemoreimportantone.Whilemakingsurethatyouconsidercarefullyallpossibleandactualcausesandeffects,youshouldalsokeepinmindthatyouranalysisshouldstopataplacewhereitspurposeisfulfilled.4)Donotomitlinksinachainofcausesandeffects.Veryoftenaneffectisbroughtaboutbyachainofcauses,oneleadingtoanother.Ifyoufailtodiscussexplicitlyeachpartofthesequence,youwillnotbeabletoconvincethereader.ItislikeadoctortellingPatientX'srelativesthatXdiedfromacold,insteadofexplainingthatthecoldhadresulted,inpneumonia,whichinturnbroughtaboutthefataleffectonthepatient'sweakheart.

1235)Beobjectiveandsupporttheanalysiswithsolid,factualevidence.AChinesesayinggoes,"Thebenevolentseebenevolenceandthewiseseewisdom."Differentpeoplehavedifferentviews,astheyoftenseethingsfromdifferentperspectives.Youwillalwaysbenefitfromacarefulandobjectiveexaminationofotherpeople'sconclusions,whetheryouacceptthemornot.Atleasttheywillhelpyoutoavoidone-sidedness.ModelsA.MyWoodAfewyearsagoIwroteabookwhichdealtinpartwiththedifficultiesoftheEnglishinIndia.FeelingthattheywouldhavehadnodifficultiesinIndiathemselves,theAmericansreadthebookfreely.Themoretheyreaditthebetteritmadethemfeel,andachequetotheauthorwastheresult.Iboughtawoodwiththecheque.Itisnotalargewood-itcontainsscarcelyanytrees,anditisintersected,blastit,byapublicfootpath.Still,itisthefirstpropertythatIhaveowned,soitisrightthatotherpeopleshouldparticipateinmyshame,andshouldaskthemselves,inaccentsthatwillvaryinhorror,thisveryimportantquestion:Whatistheeffectofpropertyuponthecharacter?Don'tlet'stoucheconomics;theeffectofprivateownershipuponthecommunityasawholeisanotherquestion-amoreimportantquestion,perhaps,butanotherone.Let'skeeptopsychology.Ifyouownthings,what'stheireffectonyou?What'stheeffectonmeofmywood?Inthefirstplace,itmakesmefeelheavy.Propertydoeshavethiseffect.Propertyproducesmenofweight,anditwasamanofweightwhofailedtogetintotheKingdomofHeaven.Hewasnotwicked,thatunfortunatemillionaireintheparable,hewasonlystout;hestuckoutinfront,nottomentionbehind,andashewedgedhimselfthiswayandthatinthecrystallineentranceandbruisedhiswell-fedflanks,hesawbeneathhimacomparativelyslimcamelpassingthroughtheeyeofaneedleandbeingwovenintotherobeofGod.TheGospelsallthroughcouplestoutnessandslowness.Theypointoutwhatisperfectlyobvious,yetseldomrealized:thatifyouhavealotofthingsyoucannotmoveaboutalot,thatfurniturerequiresdusting,dustersrequireservants,servantsrequireinsurancestamps,andthewholetangleofthemmakesyouthinktwicebeforeyouacceptaninvitationtodinnerorgoforabatheintheJordan.SometimestheGospelsproceedfurtherandsaywithTolstoythatpropertyissinful;theyapproachthedifficultgroundofasceticismhere,whereIcannotfollowthem.Butastotheimmediateeffectsofpropertyonpeople,theyjustshowstraightforwardlogic.Itproducesmenofweight.Menofweightcannot,bydefinition,movelikethelightningfromtheEastuntotheWest,andtheascentofafourteen-stonebishopintoapulpitisthustheexactantithesisofthecomingoftheSonofMan.Mywoodmakesmefeelheavy.Inthesecondplace,itmakesmefeelitoughttobelarger.TheotherdayIheardatwigsnapinit.Iwasannoyedatfirst,forIthoughtthatsomeonewasblackberrying,anddepreciatingthevalueoftheundergrowth.On

124comingnearer,Isawitwasnotamanwhohadtroddenonthetwigandsnappedit,butabird,andIfeltpleased.Mybird.Thebirdwasnotequallypleased.Ignoringtherelationbetweenus,ittookfrightassoonasitsawtheshapeofmyface,andflewstraightovertheboundaryhedgeintoafield,thepropertyofMrs.Henessy,whereitsatdownwithaloudsquawk.IthadbecomeMrs.Henessy'sbird.Somethingseemedgrosslyamisshere,somethingthatwouldnothaveoccurredhadthewoodbeenlarger.IcouldnotaffordtobuyMrs.Henessyout,Idarednotmurderher,andlimitationsofthissortbesetmeoneveryside.Ahabdidnotwantthatvineyard-heonlyneededittoroundoffhisproperty,preparatorytoplottinganewcurve-andallthelandaroundmywoodhasbecomenecessarytomeinordertoroundoffthewood.Aboundaryprotects.But-poorlittlething-theboundaryoughtinitsturntobeprotected.Noisesontheedgeofit.Childrenthrowstones.Alittlemore,andthenalittlemore,untilwereachthesea.HappyCanute!HappierAlexander!Andafterall,whyshouldeventheworldbethelimitofpossession?ArocketcontainingaUnionJack,will,itishoped,beshortlyfiredatthemoon.Mars.Sirius.Beyondwhich...Buttheseimmensitiesendedbysaddeningme.Icouldnotsupposethatmywoodwasthedestinednucleusofuniversaldominion-itissoverysmallandcontainsnomineralwealthbeyondtheblackberries.NorwasIcomfortedwhenMrs.Henessy'sbirdtookalarmforthesecondtimeandflewcleanawayfromusall,underthebeliefthatitbelongedtoitself.Inthethirdplace,propertymakesitsownerfeelthatheoughttodosomethingtoit.Yetheisn'tsurewhat.Arestlessnesscomesoverhim,avaguesensethathehasapersonalitytoexpress-thesamesensewhich,withoutanyvagueness,leadstheartisttoanactofcreation.SometimesIthinkIwillcutdownsuchtreesasremaininthewood,atothertimesIwanttofillupthegapsbetweenthemwithnewtrees.Bothimpulsesarepretentiousandempty.Theyarenothonestmovementstowardsmoneymakingorbeauty.TheyspringfromafoolishdesiretoexpressmyselfandfromaninabilitytoenjoywhatIhavegot.Creation,property,enjoymentformasinistertrinityinthehumanmind.Creationandenjoymentarebothvery,verygood,yettheyareoftenunattainablewithoutamaterialbasis,andatsuchmomentspropertypushesitselfinasasubstitute,saying,"Acceptmeinstead-I'mgoodenoughforallthree."Itisnotenough.Itis,asShakespearesaidoflust,"Theexpenseofspiritinawasteofshame";itis"Before,ajoyproposed;behind,adream."Yetwedon'tknowhowtoshunit.Itisforcedonusbyoureconomicsystemasthealternativetostarvation.Itisalsoforcedonusbyaninternaldefectinthesoul,bythefeelingthatinpropertymayliethegermsofself-developmentandofexquisiteorheroicdeeds.Ourlifeonearthis,andoughttobe,materialandcarnal.Butwehavenotyetlearnedtomanageourmaterialismandcarnalityproperly;theyarestillentangledwiththedesireforownership,where(inthewordsofDante)"Possessionisonewithloss."Andthisbringsustoourfourthandfinalpoint:theblackberries.Blackberriesarenotplentifulinthismeagregrove,buttheyareeasilyseenfromthepublicfootpathwhichtraversesit,andalltooeasilygathered.Foxgloves,too-peoplewillpullupthefoxgloves,andladiesofaneducationaltendencyevengrubfortoadstoolstoshowthemontheMondayinclass.Otherladies,lesseducated,rolldownthebrackeninthearmsoftheirgentlemenfriends.Thereispaper,therearetins.

125Pray,doesmywoodbelongtomeordoesn'tit?And,ifitdoes,shouldInotownitbestbyallowingnooneelsetowalkthere?ThereisawoodnearLymeRegis,alsocursedbyapublicfootpath,wheretheownerhasnothesitatedonthispoint.Hehasbuilthighstonewallseachsideofthepath,andhasspanneditbybridges,sothatthepubliccirculateliketermiteswhilehegorgesontheblackberriesunseen.Hereallydoesownhiswood,thisablechap.DivesinHelldidprettywell,butthegulfdividinghimfromLazaruscouldbetraversedbyvision,andnothingtraversesithere.AndperhapsIshallcometothisintime.IshallwallinandfenceoutuntilIreallytastethesweetsofproperty.Enormouslystout,endlesslyavaricious,pseudocreative,intenselyselfish,IshallweaveuponmyforeheadthequadruplecrownofpossessionuntilthosenastyBolshiescomeandtakeitoffagainandthrustmeasideintotheouterdarkness.-E.M.ForsterC.WhyIWantaWifeIbelongtothatclassificationofpeopleknownaswives.IamAWife.And,notaltogetherincidentally,Iamamother.Nottoolongagoamalefriendofmineappearedonthescenefreshfromarecentdivorce.Hehadonechild,whois,ofcourse,withhisex-wife.Heislookingforanotherwife.AsIthoughtabouthimwhileIwasironingoneevening,itsuddenlyoccurredtomethatI,too,wouldliketohaveawife.WhydoIwantawife?IwouldliketogobacktoschoolsothatIcanbecomeeconomicallyindependent,supportmyself,and,ifneedbe,supportthosedependentuponme.Iwantawifewhowillworkandsendmetoschool.AndwhileIamgoingtoschoolIwantawifetotakecareofmychildren.Iwantawifetokeeptrackofthechildren'sdoctoranddentistappointments.Andtokeeptrackofmine,too.Iwantawifetomakesuremychildreneatproperlyandarekeptclean.Iwantawifewhowillwashthechildren'sclothesandkeepthemmended.Iwantawifewhoisagoodnurturingattendanttomychildren,whoarrangesfortheirschooling,makessurethattheyhaveanadequatesociallifewiththeirpeers,takesthemtothepark,thezoo,etc.Iwantawifewhotakescareofthechildrenwhentheyaresick,awifewhoarrangestobearoundwhenthechildrenneedspecialcare,because,ofcourse,Icannotmissclassesatschool.Mywifemustarrangetolosetimeatworkandnotlosethejob.Itmaymeanasmallcutinmywife'sincomefromtimetotime,butIguessIcantoleratethat.Needlesstosay,mywifewillarrangeandpayforthecareofthechildrenwhilemywifeisworking.Iwantawifewhowilltakecareofmyphysicalneeds.Iwantawifewhowillkeepmyhouseclean.Awifewhowillpickupaftermychildren,awifewhowillpickupafterme.Iwantawifewhowillkeepmyclothesclean,ironed,mended,replacedwhenneedbe,andwhowillseetoitthatmypersonalthingsarekeptintheirproperplacesothatIcanfindwhatIneedtheminuteIneedit.Iwantawifewhocooksthemeals,awifewhoisagoodcook.Iwantawifewhowillplanthemenus,dothenecessarygroceryshopping,preparethemeals,servethempleasantly,andthendothecleaningupwhileIdomystudying.IwantawifewhowillcareformewhenIamsickandsympathizewithmypainandlossoftimefromschool.Iwantawifetogoalongwhen

126ourfamilytakesavacationsothatsomeonecancontinuetocareformeandmychildrenwhenIneedarestandchangeofscene.Iwantawifewhowillnotbothermewithramblingcomplaintsaboutawife'sduties.ButIwantawifewhowilllistentomewhenIfeeltheneedtoexplainaratherdifficultpointIhavecomeacrossinraycourseofstudies.AndIwantawifewhowilltypemypapersformewhenIhavewrittenthem.Iwantawifewhowilltakecareofthedetailsofmysociallife.WhenmywifeandIareinvitedoutbymyfriends,Iwantawifewhowilltakecareofthebabysittingarrangements.WhenImeetpeopleatschoolthatIlikeandwanttoentertain,Iwantawifewhowillhavethehouseclean,willprepareaspecialmeal,serveittomeandmyfriends,andnotinterruptwhenItalkaboutthingsthatinterestmeandmyfriends.Iwantawifewhowillhavearrangedthatthechildrenarefedandreadyforbedbeforemyguestsarrivesothatthechildrendonotbotherus.Iwantawifewhotakescareoftheneedsofmyguestssothattheyfeelcomfortable,whomakessurethattheyhaveanashtray,thattheyarepassedthehorsd'oeuvres,thattheyareofferedasecondhelpingofthefood,thattheirwineglassesarereplenishedwhennecessary,thattheircoffeeisservedtothemastheylikeit.AndIwantawifewhoknowsthatsometimesIneedanightoutbymyself.If,bychance,IfindanotherpersonmoresuitableasawifethanthewifeIalreadyhave,Iwantthelibertytoreplacemypresentwifewithanotherone.Naturally,Iwillexpectafresh,newlife!mywifewilltakethechildrenandbesolelyresponsibleforthemsothatIamleftfree.WhenIamthroughwithschoolandhaveajob,Iwantmywifetoquitworkingandremainathomesothatmywifecanmorefullyandcompletelytakecareofawife'sduties.MyGod,whowouldn'twantawife?-JudySyfersC.BeingShortBeingshortissomethingthatcannotbehelped.Onecannotchooseone'sappearance;itisalreadydecidedatthetimewhenoneisborn.Andifithappensthatone'sparentsarebothshort,itisinevitablethatonewillremainshortallhislife,whetherhelikesitornot.Beingshortisalifelongpity.Almosteveryonewantstolookbeautifulandtobemoderatelytall.Forme,ithasalwaysbeenabadtimeduringmedicalexaminationswhenIhavetostandonthatterriblescaleandhavemyheightmeasuredandrecorded.Yearafteryear,thefigureseemstoremainthesame.AlthoughnowIhavemoreorlessreconciledtothisunchangeablefact,Ijustcannothelpfeelingregretfulattimes.HowniceitwouldbeifonlyIcouldbejustaninchtaller.Beingshortisa"handicap"andthisissomethingthatIhatemost.Duringmilitarytraining,Istoodattheendoftheline,becauseIwasorwasconsideredtheshortest.Andiftheydidnotwanttoomanystudentstomarchinareview,theyalwaysdiscardedtheshortest,neverthetallest.ThoughIdonotreallymindagreatdeal

127aboutjoininginareview,Ijustdonotfeelgood.Iusedtoattendavolleyballtrainingclass,andeverytimeweneededtoseparateintoteamstoplayamatch,thecoachwouldsay,"Youtwelveshorteronesgothere,andyoutwelvetalleronescomehere,please."Itsometimesmakesmefuriousaboutbeingtreatedsounfairly.ShortasIam,Iamnotapoorplayerandshouldbereckonedwith.Beingshortisbeinginferior.EverydayIliveamongpeoplewhoaremostlytallerthanIam.Whetheritisoutoffriendlinessorwhatever,veryoften,theypatmeonthehead,orthrowoneoftheirarmsconvenientlyovermyshoulder,andlookdownatme,whileIhavetolookupatthem.Thesegesturesmightnotbeillintended,butIfeelthatthesepeoplearetakingadvantageofmyshortness,andwanttoshowtheyaresuperiortome.Beingshortisanimpetus.Whenwe,theshort,havetolivewiththeseday-to-daydisadvantages-thepity,thehandicap,andtheinferiority,weturntootherthingstogetself-confidence.Weworkindustriouslyagainstprejudicestotellpeoplethatwearebynomeansinferiororhandicappesd.-StudentD.EffectsofSelfishnessSelfishnessoregoismisbynomeansraretoday.Inworkunits,inpublicplaces,andinouruniversity,wearesadtoseesomepeoplewhotrytoadvancetheirowninterestsevenatthecostoftheirhonoranddignity.Whataretheeffectsofselfishnessonaperson?First,Ithink,selfishnessmakeshimfriendless.Aselfishpersondoesnotunderstandthatfriendshipisbasedonmutualrespectandmutualhelp.Itissomethingof"give-and-take".Aselfishpersonneveroffershelptoothers,butheisbrazenenoughtoaskothersforhelp.Hemaywantsomeonetoexplainsomethingtohimforanhour,buthewillturnadeafeartothisperson'squestionsimmediatelyafterhisownproblemhasbeensolved.Hedoesnotfeelashamedindoingso;instead,hefeelsjustifiedbecausehemakesgooduseofeveryminuteofhistime!Aselfishpersonisalsoindifferenttootherpeople'spainsandsufferingsandneverstandoutinanemergency.Therefore,whenaroom-mateofhisfallsseriouslyillandisbadlyinneedofhishelp,hedodgestheresponsibilitybypretendingnottoknowthat.Hehideshimselfinthelibrarythoughheusuallystaysinthedormitory.Apersonlikethiscanneverexpecttohavetruefriends.Hemaytakeadvantageofotherpeople'skindnessandbenefitfromitonceortwice,butwilllosetheirfriendshipforever.Secondly,aselfishpersoncanneverbereallyhappy.Stingywithhistimeandenergy,unwillingtohelpothers,andeagertoprofitatotherpeople'sexpense,aselfishpersonconstantlyfindshimselfdespisedandlonely.Hecannevershareotherpeople'spleasureorhappiness,norwillotherssharehis.Heissoafraidofhelpingothersthathekeepsawayfromthosewhoaredoingsomethingforotherpeople.Generouspeoplemayhelpsomeonewhosehomehasbeendamagedbyafirebyofferingmoneyfromtheirownpockets,butaselfishpersonwillneverdoanythinglikethat.Therefore,whenpeopleenjoyhappinessinthehappinessofthepersonthey

128havehelped,theselfishpersoncanneverhavethishappiness.Unabletogetanyone'shelpintimeofdifficultyorshareanyone'spleasure,howcanaselfishpersoneverbehappy?Thirdly,selfishnessmayverywellleadapersontodestruction.Aselfishperson'sdesireforgoodthingsisinsatiable.Hewillshamelesslystealabookfromthelibraryandkeepitforhisownuseeventhoughheknowshundredsofhisfellowstudentsarebadlyinneedofit.Oncehesucceedsinstealingsomethingpetty,hisselfishdesirewilldrivehimonto"newadventures."Todayitmaybeabook,tomorrowitwillbeawatch,abicycle,acameraandsoonuntilheendsupinprison.Selfishnesspoisonspeople'smindsandrunscountertothebasicvaluesofasocialistsociety.Itshouldhavenoplaceinourcountrytoday!-Student(5)DefinitionDefinitionisnecessarywhenoneusesatermthatmayhavevariousdenotativeorconnotativemeaningsorshadesofmeaning.Misunderstandingsoftenarisewhenthereadermisinterpretstheterm,especiallywhenitisabstract,ambiguous,orcontroversial.Itisthereforenecessarytomakethemeaningofthetermclear,ortodefinetheterm.Therearetwomaintypesofdefinition-logicalorformal,andextendedorinformal.Thelogicalorformaldefinitionisthedictionarydefinitionwhichisrigidinform.Itisoftenusedinclarifyingmeaningsofconcreteornoncontroversialterms.Itmayprovideasynonym-forexample,cinema:amotionpicture.Moreoften,itconsistsofthreeessentialparts:theterm,theclass,andthedifference.Whenonedefinesaterm,onelimitsittoarestrictedclassandexplainsthecharacteristicsthatdistinguishitfromothersofthesameclass.Hereisanexample:"Andentistisapersonwhoseworkisfilling,cleaning,takingoutteethandfittingartificialteeth."Theuseofthelogicaldefinitionislimited.Whenideals,concepts,oremotionsarediscussed,theycanbeexplainedsatisfactorilyonlybyextendedorinformaldefinitions.Likelogicalorformaldefinitions,theyalsouseclassificationanddifferentiation.Unliketheformer,theyarenotrigidinformandareextended.Definitionpapersconsistmostlyofextendedorinformaldefinitions.Whenyouwriteadefinitionpaper,keepinmindthefollowingpoints:1)Adefinitionpaperdiscussesabstracttermssuchasliberty,equality,beauty,love,socialism,etc.,thedenotativeandespeciallyconnotativemeaningsofwhichareoftendifferenttodifferentpeople.2)Adefinitionpaperanswersfully,thoughoftenimplicitly,thequestion"Whatis...?"Itpresentstheessentialnatureandthequalitiesofthediscussedsubjectandshowshowitisdifferentfromotherslikeitandoftenexplainswhyweneedtoknowaboutit.Itusuallyturnsouttobeanexpressionofopinionorattitude,anditisthisexpression

129ofopinionorattitudethatgiveslifetoadefinitionpaperandmakesitmoreinterestingandenlighteningtoreadthanadictionary.3)Definitionpapersfollownosetpattern.Someusedescriptionoroneoftheexpositorypatterns,butmostarecombinationsofseveralexpositorypatterns.Adefinitionpapercantreatawordetymologicallytoshowitsoriginalmeaning,ormoreoften,tracethehistoryofatermwhichhaschangedinmeaningovertheyears.Whendiscussing"courage",adefinitionpapercangiveexamplestoclarifythemeaning,classifyitintocouragedisplayedphysicallyormorallyorspiritually,compareorcontrastitwith"recklessness"or"unscrupulousness",orstudyitscauseandeffect.Negationcanalsobeusedindefinition,thatis,showingwhatisnotmeantbytheterm.4)Adefinitionpapermaybeeitherdeductiveorinductive.Thedeductiveessaybeginswithadefinitionwhichisfollowedbyotherexpositorypatterns;theinductiveessayreachesthedefinitionafteremployinganyoftheothermethodsofdevelopment.Thefinalpartoftheessayisoftenarestatement,inwhichtheessentialsofthedefinitionaresummeduporreinforced.ModelsA.CivilizationTherearefewwordswhichareusedmorelooselythantheword"Civilization."Whatdoesitmean?Itmeansasocietybasedupontheopinionofcivilians.Itmeansthatviolence,theruleofwarriorsanddespoticchiefs,theconditionsofcampsandwarfare,ofriotandtyranny,giveplacetoparliamentswherelawsaremade,andindependentcourtsofjusticeinwhichoverlongperiodsthoselawsaremaintained.ThatisCivilization-andinitssoilgrowcontinuallyfreedom,comfortandculture.WhenCivilizationreignsinanycountry,awiderandlessharassedlifeisaffordedtothemassesofthepeople.Thetraditionsofthepastarecherished,andtheinheritancebequeathedtousbyformerwiseorvaliantmenbecomesarichestatetobeenjoyedandusedbyall.ThecentralprincipleofCivilizationisthesubordinationoftherulingauthoritytothesettledcustomsofthepeopleandtotheirwillasexpressedthroughtheConstitution.InthisIslandwehavetodayachievedinahighdegreetheblessingsofCivilization.Thereisfreedom;thereislaw;thereisloveofcountry;thereisagreatmeasureofgoodwillbetweenclasses;thereisawideningprosperity.Thereareunmeasuredopportunitiesofcorrectingabusesandmakingfurtherprogress.-WinstonS.ChurchillB.Civilization

130Ihavenotyetdefinedcivilization;butperhapsIhavemadedefinitionsuperfluous.Anyone,Ifancy,whohasdonemethehonourofreadingsofarwillbynowunderstandprettywellwhatImean.Civilizationisacharacteristicofsocieties.Initscrudestformitisthecharacteristicwhichdifferentiateswhatanthropologistscall"advanced"fromwhattheycall"low"or"backward"societies.Sosoonassavagesbegintoapplyreasontoinstinct,sosoonastheyacquirearudimentarysenseofvalues-sosoon,thatis,astheybegintodistinguishbetweenendsandmeans,orbetweendirectmeanstogoodandremote-theyhavetakenthefirststepupward.Thefirststeptowardscivilizationisthecorrectingofinstinctbyreason:thesecond,thedeliberaterejectionofimmediatesatisfactionswithaviewtoobtainingsubtler.Thehungrysavage,whenhecatchesarabbit,eatsitthereandthen,orinstinctivelytakesithome,asafoxmight,tobeeatenrawbyhiscubs;thefirstwho,allhungrythoughhewas,tookithomeandcookeditwasontheroadtoAthens.Hewasapioneer,whowithequaljusticemaybedescribedasthefirstdecadent.Thefactissignificant.Civilizationissomethingartificialandunnatural.ProgressandDecadenceareinterchangeableterms.Allwhohaveaddedtohumanknowledgeandsensibility,andmostofthoseevenwhohavemerelyincreasedmaterialcomfort,havebeenhailedbycontemporariescapableofprofitingbytheirdiscoveriesasbenefactors,anddenouncedbyallwhomage,stupidity,orjealousyrenderedincapable,asdegenerates.Itissillytoquarrelaboutwords:letusagreethatthehabitofcookingone'svictualsmaywithequalproprietybeconsideredasteptowardscivilizationorafallingawayfromtheprimitiveperfectionoftheupstandingape.Fromtheseprimaryqualities,ReasonablenessandaSenseofValues,mayspringahostofsecondaries:atastefortruthandbeauty,tolerance,intellectualhonesty,fastidiousness,asenseofhumour,goodmanners,curiosity,adislikeofvulgarity,brutality,andoveremphasis,freedomfromsuperstitionandprudery,afearlessacceptanceofthegoodthingsoflife,adesireforcompleteself-expressionandforaliberaleducation,acontemptforutilitarianismandphilistinism;intwowords-sweetnessandlight.Notallsocietiesthatstruggleoutofbarbarismgraspallorevenmostofthese,andfewerstillgraspanyofthemfirmly.Thatiswhywefindaconsiderablenumberofcivilizedsocietiesandveryfewhighlycivilized,foronlybygraspingagoodhandfulofcivilizedqualitiesandholdingthemtightdoesasocietybecomethat.-CliveBellB.KnowledgeandWisdomMostpeoplewouldagreethat,althoughouragefarsurpassesallpreviousagesinknowledge,therehasbeennocorrelativeincreaseinwisdom.Butagreementceasesassoonasweattempttodefine"wisdom"andconsidermeansofpromotingit.Iwanttoaskfirstwhatwisdomis,andthenwhatcanbedonetoteachit.Thereare,Ithink,severalfactorsthatcontributetowisdom.OftheseIshouldputfirstasenseofproportion:thecapacitytotakeaccountofalltheimportantfactorsinaproblemandtoattachtoeachitsdueweight.Thishasbecomemoredifficultthanit

131usedtobeowingtotheextentandcomplexityofthespecializedknowledgerequiredofvariouskindsoftechnicians.Suppose,forexample,thatyouareengagedinresearchinscientificmedicine.Theworkisdifficultandislikelytoabsorbthewholeofyourintellectualenergy.Youhavenottimetoconsidertheeffectwhichyourdiscoveriesorinventionsmayhaveoutsidethefieldofmedicine.Yousucceed(letussay),asmodernmedicinehassucceeded,inenormouslyloweringtheinfantdeathrate,notonlyinEuropeandAmerica,butalsoin.AsiaandAfrica.Thishastheentirelyunintendedresultofmakingthefoodsupplyinadequateandloweringthestandardoflifeinthemostpopulouspartsoftheworld.Totakeanevenmorespectacularexample,whichisineverybody'smindatthepresenttime:Youstudythecompositionoftheatomfromadisinteresteddesireforknowledge,andincidentallyplaceinthehandsofpowerfullunaticsthemeansofdestroyingthehumanrace.Insuchwaysthepursuitofknowledgemaybecomeharmfulunlessitiscombinedwithwisdom;andwisdominthesenseofcomprehensivevisionisnotnecessarilypresentinspecialistsinthepursuitofknowledge.Comprehensivenessalone,however,isnotenoughtoconstitutewisdom.Theremustbe,also,acertainawarenessoftheendsofhumanlife.Thismaybeillustratedbythestudyofhistory.Manyeminenthistorianshavedonemoreharmthangoodbecausetheyviewedfactsthroughthedistortingmediumoftheirownpassions.Hegelhadaphilosophyofhistorywhichdidnotsufferfromanylackofcomprehensiveness,sinceitstartedfromtheearliesttimesandcontinuedintoanindefinitefuture.ButthechieflessonofhistorywhichhesoughttoinculcatewasthatfromtheyearA.D.400downtohisowntimeGermanyhadbeenthemostimportantnationandthestandard-bearerofprogressintheworld.Perhapsonecouldstretchthecomprehensivenessthatconstituteswisdomtoincludenotonlyintellectbutalsofeeling.Itisbynomeansuncommontofindmenwhoseknowledgeiswidebutwhosefeelingsarenarrow.SuchmenlackwhatIamcallingwisdom.Itisnotonlyinpublicways,butinprivatelifeequally,thatwisdomisneeded.Itisneededinthechoiceofendstobepursuedandinemancipationfrompersonalprejudice.Evenanendwhichitwouldbenobletopursueifitwereattainablemaybepursuedunwiselyifitisinherentlyimpossibleofachievement.Manymeninpastagesdevotedtheirlivestoasearchforthephilosopher'sstoneandtheelixiroflife.Nodoubt,iftheycouldhavefoundthem,theywouldhaveconferredgreatbenefitsuponmankind,butasitwastheirliveswerewasted.Todescendtolessheroicmatters,considerthecaseoftwomen,Mr.AandMr.B,whohateeachotherand,throughmutualhatred,bringeachothertodestruction.SupposeyougotoMr.Aandsay,"WhydoyouhateMr.B?"HewillnodoubtgiveyouanappallinglistofMr.B'svices,partlytrue,partlyfalse.AndnowsupposeyougotoMr.B.HewillgiveyouanexactlysimilarlistofMr.A'sviceswithanequaladmixtureoftruthandfalsehood.SupposeyounowcomebacktoMr.Aandsay,"YouwillbesurprisedtolearnthatMr.Bsaysthesamethingsaboutyouasyousayabouthim",andyougotoMr.Bandmakeasimilarspeech.Thefirsteffect,nodoubt,willbetoincreasetheirmutualhatred,sinceeachwillbesohorrifiedbytheother'sinjustice.Butperhaps,ifyouhavesufficientpatienceandsufficientpersuasiveness,youmaysucceedinconvincing

132eachthattheotherhasonlythenormalshareofhumanwickedness,andthattheirenmityisharmfultoboth.Ifyoucandothis,youwillhaveinstilledsomefragmentofwisdom.Ithinktheessenceofwisdomisemancipation,asfaraspossible,fromthetyrannyofthehereandthenow.Wecannothelptheegoismofoursenses.Sightandsoundandtouchareboundupwithourownbodiesandcannotbemadeimpersonal.Ouremotionsstartsimilarlyfromourselves.Aninfantfeelshungerordiscomfort,andisunaffectedexceptbyhisownphysicalcondition.Graduallywiththeyears,hishorizonwidens,and,inproportionashisthoughtsandfeelingsbecomelesspersonalandlessconcernedwithhisownphysicalstates,heachievesgrowingwisdom.Thisisofcourseamatterofdegree.Noonecanviewtheworldwithcompleteimpartiality;andifanyonecould,hewouldhardlybeabletoremainalive.Butitispossibletomakeacontinualapproachtowardsimpartiality,ontheonehand,byknowingthingssomewhatremoteintimeorspace,and,ontheotherhand,bygivingtosuchthingstheirdueweightinourfeelings.Itisthisapproachtowardsimpartialitythatconstitutesgrowthinwisdom.Canwisdominthissensebetaught?And,ifitcan,shouldtheteachingofitbeoneoftheaimsofeducation?Ishouldanswerboththesequestionsintheaffirmative.WearetoldonSundaysthatweshouldloveourneighbourasourselves.Ontheothersixdaysoftheweek,weareexhortedtohatehim.Youmaysaythatthisisnonsense,sinceitisnotourneighbourwhomweareexhortedtohate.ButyouwillrememberthatthepreceptwasexemplifiedbysayingthattheSamaritanwasourneighbour.WenolongerhaveanywishtohateSamaritansandsoweareapttomissthepointoftheparable.Ifyouwanttogetitspoint,youshouldsubstituteCommunistoranti-Communist,asthecasemaybe,forSamaritan.Itmightbeobjectedthatitisrighttohatethosewhodoharm.Idonotthinkso.Ifyouhatethem,itisonlytoolikelythatyouwillbecomeequallyharmful;anditisveryunlikelythatyouwillinducethemtoabandontheirevilways.Hatredofevilisitselfakindofbondagetoevil.Thewayoutisthroughunderstanding,notthroughhate.Iamnotadvocatingnon-resistance.ButIamsayingthatresistance,ifitistobeeffectiveinpreventingthespreadofevil,shouldbecombinedwiththegreatestdegreeofunderstandingandthesmallestdegreeofforcethatiscompatiblewiththesurvivalofthegoodthingsthatwewishtopreserve.ItiscommonlyurgedthatapointofviewsuchasIhavebeenadvocatingisincompatiblewithvigourinaction.Idonotthinkhistorybearsoutthisview.QueenElizabethIinEnglandandHenryⅣinFrancelivedinaworldwherealmosteverybodywasfanatical,eitherontheProtestantorontheCatholicside.Bothremainedfreefromtheerrorsoftheirtimeandboth,byremainingfree,werebeneficentandcertainlynotineffective.AbrahamLincolnconductedagreatwarwithouteverdepartingfromwhatIhavebeencallingwisdom.Ihavesaidthatinsomedegreewisdomcanbetaught.Ithinkthatthisteachingshouldhavealargerintellectualelementthanhasbeencustomaryinwhathasbeenthoughtofasmoralinstruction.Ithinkthatthedisastrousresultsofhatredandnarrow-mindednesstothosewhofeelthemcanbepointedoutincidentallyinthe

133courseofgivingknowledge.Idonotthinkthatknowledgeandmoralsoughttobetoomuchseparated.Itistruethatthekindofspecializedknowledgewhichisrequiredforvariouskindsofskillhasverylittletodowithwisdom.Butitshouldbesupplementedineducationbywidersurveyscalculatedtoputitinitsplaceinthetotalofhumanactivities.Eventhebesttechniciansshouldalsobegoodcitizens;andwhenIsay"citizens",Imeancitizensoftheworldandnotofthisorthatsectornation.Witheveryincreaseofknowledgeandskill,wisdombecomesmorenecessary,foreverysuchincreaseaugmentsourcapacityofrealizingourpurposes,andthereforeaugmentsourcapacityforevil,ifourpurposesareunwise.Theworldneedswisdomasithasneverneededitbefore;andifknowledgecontinuestoincrease,theworldwillneedwisdominthefutureevenmorethanitdoesnow.-BertrandRussellD.WhatIsPoverty?Youaskmewhatispoverty?Listentome.HereIam,dirty,smelly,andwithno"proper"underwearonandwiththestenchofmyrottingteethnearyou.Iwilltellyou.Listentome.Listenwithoutpity.Icannotuseyourpity.Listenwithunderstanding.Putyourselfinmydirty,wornout,ill-fittingshoes,andhearme.Povertyisgettingupeverymorningfromadirt-andillness-stainedmattress.Thesheetshavelongsincebeenusedfordiapers.Poveryislivinginasmellthatneverleaves.Thisisasmellofurine,sourmilk,andspoilingfoodsometimesjoinedwiththestrongsmelloflong-cookedonions.Onionsarecheap.Ifyouhavesmelledthissmell,youdidnotknowhowitcame.Itisthesmelloftheoutdoorprivy.Itisthesmellofyoungchildrenwhocannotwalkthelongdarkwayinthenight.Itisthesmellofthemattresseswhereyearsof"accidents"havehappened.Itisthesmellofthemilkwhichhasgonesourbecausetherefrigeratorlonghasnotworked,anditcostsmoneytogetitfixed.Itisthesmellofrottinggarbage.Icouldburyit,butwhereistheshovel?Shovelscostmoney.Povertyisbeingtired.Ihavealwaysbeentired.Theytoldmeatthehospitalwhenthelastbabycamethat.Ihadchronicanemiacausedfrompoordiet,abadcaseofworms,andthatIneededacorrectiveoperation.Ilistenedpolitely-hepoorarealwayspolite.Thepooralwayslisten.Theydon'tsaythatthereisnomoneyforironpills,orbetterfood,orwormmedicine.Theideaofanoperationisfrighteningandcostssomuchthat,ifIhaddared,Iwouldhavelaughed.Whotakescareofmychildren?Recoveryfromanoperationtakesalongtime.Ihavethreechildren.WhenIleftthemwith"Granny"thelasttimeIhadajob,Icamehometofindthebabycoveredwithflyspecks,andadiaperthathadnotbeenchangedsinceIleft.Whenthedrieddiapercameoff,bitsofmybaby'sfleshcamewithit.Myotherchildwasplayingwithasharpbitofbrokenglass,andmyoldestwasplayingaloneattheedgeofalake.Imadetwenty-twodollarsaweek,andagoodnurseryschoolcoststwentydollarsaweekforthreechildren.Iquitmyjob.Povertyisdirt.Youcansayinyourcleanclothescomingfromyourcleanhouse,"Anybodycanbeclean."Letmeexplainabouthousekeepingwithnomoney.For

134breakfastIgivemychildrengritswithnooleoorcornbreadwithouteggsandoleo.Thisdoesnotuseupmanydishes.Whatdishesthereare,Iwashincoldwaterandwithnosoap.Eventhecheapestsoaphastobesavedforthebaby'sdiapers.Lookatmyhands,socrackedandred.OnceIsavedfortwomonthstobuyajarofVaselineformyhandsandthebaby'sdiaperrash.WhenIhadsavedenough,Iwenttobuyitandthepricehadgoneuptwocents.ThebabyandIsufferedon.IhavetodecideeverydayifIcanbeartoputmycrackedsorehandsintothecoldwaterandstrongsoap.Butyouask,whynothotwater?Fuelcostsmoney.Ifyouhaveawoodfireitcostsmoney.Ifyouburnelectricity,itcostsmoney.Hotwaterisaluxury.Idonothaveluxuries.IknowyouwillbesurprisedwhenItellyouhowyoungIam.Ilooksomucholder.Mybackhasbeenbentoverthewashtubseverydayforsolong,IcannotrememberwhenIeverdidanythingelse.EverynightIwasheverystitchmyschoolagechildhasonandjusthopeherclotheswillbedrybymorning.Povertyisstayingupallnightoncoldnightstowatchthefireknowingonesparkonthenewspapercoveringthewallsmeansyoursleepingchilddiesinflames.Insummerpovertyiswatchinggnatsandfliesdevouryourbaby'stearswhenhecries.Thescreensaretornandyoupaysolittlerentyouknowtheywillneverbefixed.Povertymeansinsectsinyourfood,inyounose,inyoureyes,andcrawlingoveryouwhenyousleep.Povertyishopingitneverrainsbecausediaperswon'tdrywhenitrainsandsoonyouareusingnewspapers.Povertyisseeingyourchildrenforeverwithrunnynoses.Paperhandkerchiefscostmoneyandallyourragsyouneedforotherthings.Evenmorecostlyareantihistamines.Povertyiscookingwithoutfoodandcleaningwithoutsoap.Povertyisaskingforhelp.Haveyoueverhadtoaskforhelp,knowingyourchildrenwillsufferunlessyougetit?Thinkaboutaskingforaloanfromarelative,ifthisistheonlywayyoucanimagineaskingforhelp.Iwilltellyouhowitfeels.Youfindoutwheretheofficeisthatyouaresupposedtovisit.Youcirclethatblockfourorfivetimes.Thinkingofyourchildren,yougoin.Everyoneisverybusy.Finally,someonecomesoutamyoutellherthatyouneedhelp.Thatneveristhepersonyouneedtosee.Yougoseeanotherperson,andafterspillingthewholeshameofyourpovertyalloverthedeskbetweenyou,youfindthatthisisn'ttherightofficeafterall-youmustrepeatthewholeprocess,anditneverisanyeasieratthenextplace.Youhaveaskedforhelp,andafterallithasacost.Youareagaintoldtowait.Youaretoldwhy,butyoudon'treallyhearbecauseoftheredcloudofshameandtherisingcloudofdespair.Povertyisremembering.Itisrememberingquittingschoolinjuniorhighbecause"nice"childrenhadbeensocruelaboutmyclothesandmysmell.Theattendanceofficercame.MymothertoldhimIwaspregnant.Iwasn't,butshethoughtthatIcouldgetajobandhelpout.Ihadjobsoffandon,butneverlongenoughtolearnanything.MostlyIrememberbeingmarried.Iwassoyoungthen.Iamstillyoung.Foratime,wehadallthethingsyouhave.Therewasalittlehouseinanothertown,withhotwaterandeverything.Thenmyhusbandlosthisjob.TherewasunemploymentinsuranceforawhileandwhatfewjobsIcouldget.Soon,allournicethingswererepossessedandwemovedbackhere.Iwaspregnantthen.Thishouse

135didn'tlooksobadwhenwefirstmovedin.Everyweekitgetsworse.Nothingiseverfixed.Wenowhadnomoney.Therewereafewoddjobsformyhusband,buteverythingwentforfoodthen,asitdoesnow.Idon'tknowhowwelivedthroughthreeyearsandthreebabies,butwedid.I'lltellyousomething,afterthelastbabyIdestroyedmymarriage.Ithadbeenagoodone,butcouldyoukeeponbringingchildreninthisdirt?Didyoueverthinkhowmuchitcostsforanykindofbirthcontrol?Iknewmyhusbandwasleavingthedayheleft,buttherewerenogoodbysbetweenus.Ihopehehasbeenabletoclimboutofthismesssomewhere.Henevercouldhopewithustodraghimdown.That'swhenIaskedforhelp.WhenIgotit,youknowhowmuchitwas?Itwas,andis,seventy-eightdollarsamonthforthetourofus;thatisallIevercanget.Nowyouknowwhythereisnosoap,noneedlesandthread,nohotwater,noaspirin,nowormmedicine,nohandcream,noshampoo.Noneofthesethingsforeverandeverandever.Sothatyoucanseeclearly,Ipaytwentydollarsamonthrent,andmostoftherestgoesforfood.Forgritsandcornmeal,andriceandmilkandbeans.Itrymybesttouseonlytheminimumelectricity.IfIusemore,thereisthatmuchlessforfood.Povertyislookingintoablackfuture.Yourchildrenwon'tplaywithmyboys.Theywillturntootherboyswhostealtogetwhattheywant.Icanalreadyseethembehindthebarsoftheirprisoninsteadofbehindthebarsofmypoverty.Ortheywillturntothefreedomofalcoholordrugs,andfindthemselvesenslaved.Andmydaughter?Atbest,thereisforheralifelikemine.Butyousaytome,thereareschools.Yes,thereareschools.Mychildrenhavenoextrabooks,nomagazines,noextrapencils,orcrayons,orpaperandmostimportantofall,theydonothavehealth.Theyhaveworms,theyhaveinfections,theyhavepink-eyeallsummer.Theydonotsleepwellonthefloor,orwithmeinmyonebed.Theydonotsufferfromhunger,myseventy-eightdollarskeepsusalive,buttheydosufferfrommalnutrition.Ohyes,IdorememberwhatIwastaughtabouthealthinschool.Itdoesn'tdomuchgood.Insomeplacesthereisasurpluscommoditiesprogram.Nothere.Thecountrysaiditcosttoomuch.Thereisaschoollunchprogram.ButIhavetwochildrenwhowillalreadybedamagedbythetimetheygettoschool.But,yousaytome,therearehealthclinics.Yes,therearehealthclinicsandtheyareinthetowns.Iliveouthereeightmitesfromtown.Icanwalkthatfar(evenifitissixteenmilesbothways),butcanmylittlechildren?Myneighborwilltakemewhenhegoes;butheexpectstogetpaid,onewayoranother.Ibetyouknowmyneighbor.Heisthatlargemanwhospendshistimeatthegasstation,thebarbershop,andthecornerstorecomplainingaboutthegovernmentspendingmoneyontheimmoral-mothersofillegitimatechildren.Povertyisanacidthatdripsonprideuntilallprideiswornaway.Povertyisachiselthatchipsonhonoruntilhonoriswornaway.Someofyousaythatyouwoulddosomethinginmysituation,andmaybeyouwould,forthefirstweekorthefirstmonth,butforyearafteryearafteryear?Eventhepoorcandream.Adreamofatimewhenthereismoney.Moneyfortherightkindsoffood,forwormmedicine,forironpills,fortoothbrushes,forhandcream,for

136ahammerandnailsandabitofscreening,forashovel,forabitofpaint,forsomesheeting,forneedlesandthread.Moneytopayinmoneyforatriptotown.And,oh,moneyforhotwaterandmoneyforsoap.Adreamofwhenaskingforhelpdoesnoteatawaythelastbitofpride.Whentheofficeyouvisitisasniceastheofficesofothergovernmentalagencies,whenthereareenoughworkerstohelpyouquickly,whenworkersdonotquitindefeatanddespair.Whenyouhavetotellyourstorytoonlyoneperson,andthatpersoncansendyouforotherhelpandyoudon'thavetoproveyourpovertyoverandoverandoveragain.Ihavecomeoutofmydespairtotellyouthis.RememberIdidnotcomefromanotherplaceoranothertime.Otherslikemeareallaroundyou.Lookatuswithanangryheart,angerthatwillhelpyouhelpme.Angerthatwillletyoutellofme.Thepoorarealwayssilent.Canyoubesilenttoo?-JoGoodwinParkerE.HomesicknessOnlyapersonfarawayfromhomeknowswhathomesicknessis.Itisthewelling-uptearsinyoureyes,thelumpinyourthroat,thewavinghandswhenthetrainisdrawingoutofthestationandtakingyouawayfromhome.Itisthestrengthwithwhichyouwalkthethreemilestoyourhomewithheavybagsinyourhandsafteralongtiringtrip,andthehalt,excitement,andhesitationatthedoorstep.Itistheimpatience,anxiety,misery,fear,andwildguesseswhenyouarewaitingforaletterfromhome.Itistheneverfadingjoyofreadingitagainandagaininbed.Itistheunusualpatienceandindomitablewillpowerwithwhichyougototheticketofficeatmidnightandstandinalonglinebeforethesmallwindow,andtheecstacywhenyouatlastgetaticketatteno'clockthenextmorning.Itisthesuddendelightofclosenessthatstrikesyouwhenyoumeetapersonfromthesametown,orevenastrangerwhohasjustbeenthere.Itistheeagernesstoaskabouteverything,thetrees,thehills,andyourdearoldfolks.Itisthesparklingeyeswhenyoucomeuponafewwordsaboutyourhometowninonecornerofanewspaper.Itisthefeartosing"Home,SweetHome"incaseofaburstoftears.Itisthemurmurof"Mummy"indreams.Itisthemerethoughtofthehomemadecakemakingyourmouthwater.Anditisthesmallgrocerynextdoorandtheshopowner'sfriendlysmilethatkeepsonappearinginyourdreams.Itisthesensitivenessyoubegintodevelop.Youcannothelpdaydreamingatthewhistleofatrain,andyoureyesmoistenatthesightofahouseorevenatreethatlooksliketheoneinyourhometown.Itistheunspeakablesadnessthatcreepsoveryouwhenyoustandaloneinthedarkeningduskandseebirdsflyingbacktotheirnestsandeverybodyhurryinghome.Itisthesilentsighandfaintpaininyourheartwhenyoubeginreadingthestory,"Thatspringfortyyearsago,Iwavedfarewelltomyvillageandmydearmother..."Sowarmawordishome,andsuchasweetsadnessishomesickness.-Student

137F.TheRed,Yellow,andWhiteRoadsOnreadingthetitle,youmayfeelquitepuzzled."Whatdoesitmean?"youmayask.Tobefrankwithyou,whenafriendusedthisphrase,Iwasalsoatalosswhattomakeofituntilsheexplainedittome."Thered,yellow,andwhiteroads"isapopularphraseamongseniorstudentsinChinesecolleges.Intheirlastyearincollege,studentsbegintoconsidertheirfuturejobs.Itistimeforthemtodecidewhethertheywillbeofficials,businessmen,orintellectuals.Ofcourse,differentpeoplemakedifferentchoices.Thesechoices,byandlarge,aregeneralizedasthe"red","yellow",and"white"roads.Theredroadisconsideredtobethemostpromisingone.RedinChinaisthecolorwhichhassomeconnectionwithcommunism.Theonewhochoosestofollowthisroadwill,firstofall,jointheCommunistParty.AdiplomaandaPartycardwillmakeitmucheasierforhimthanonewithoutthetwothingstobepromoted,firstassectionchief,andthenasheadofadepartment.Gradually,hewillclimbupthesocialladder.Theredroadseemstoprovideagoodchanceforonetoachievehispoliticalgoal.Thesecondoneistheyellowroad.Yellowmayremindusofgold.Tobewell-to-doisthegoal.Howdoesoneachieveit?PositionsinjointventuresrunbyChinaandsomeforeigncountriesarethemostdesirableforpeoplewhohavechosenthisroad.Thoughtheymayhavetoworkhard,theygetgoodpay.Asidefromthat,thosegraduateswhoknowforeignlanguagesmayhavemoreopportunitiestogoabroadthanpeopleworkingelsewhere.Onthewhole,thisisaprofitableroad.Lastlycomesthewhiteroad.Thecolorisnotsodelightfulasthefirsttwo.Peoplewhochoosethisroadwillworkveryhardsoastobecomegraduatestudents,andtobesuccessfulintheworldofknowledge.Itisanarduousroadwithoutmuchconcreteandimmediatebenefits.Justlikethecoloritself,theroadisverycleanandpure.Thethreeroadsreflectsomecharacteristicsofoursocietyandshow,inaway,whatyoungpeoplearethinkinganddreamingof.Itisgoodtoknowthatyoungpeopleareverypracticalnow.Butitisalsoratherdisappointingtofindthatknowledgewhichisvitaltoourmodernizationisplacedlast.Peoplearesoobsessedbypowerandmoneythatknowledgeisdevaluated.-Student4.ArgumentationThepurposeofexpositionistoinform;thepurposeofargumentation,ontheotherhand,istoconvince.Whileanexpositorypapermakesknownsomethingandexplainsittomakethereaderunderstand,anargumentativeessaytriestomakethereaderagreewithitspointofviewandsupportit,topersuadehimtochangehismindorbehavior,andtoapproveapolicyoracourseofactionthatitproposes.Speechesonpolicies,editorialsofnewspapers,articlesonpoliticalortheoreticalquestions,andvariousproposalsareoftenargumentative.Argumentationfrequentlymakesuseoftheotherthreetypesofwriting-description,narration,andaboveallexposition,forargumentationandexpositionareveryclosely

138related-argumentationisactuallyexpositionwiththeadditionalpurposeofconvincingorpersuading.Althoughtheycantakedifferentshapes,argumentativeessayshavecertainbasicfeaturesincommon.Ifyouwishtowriteagoodargumentativeessay,youshoulddoyourbesttomeetthefollowingrequirements:(1)AdebatablepointItisimperativethatthepapershouldhaveadebatablepoint,thatis,somethingwhichcanbeviewedfrommorethanoneangleandisthereforeopentodispute.Generallyspeaking,thefollowingarenotgoodthemes.1)Merestatementsoffacts."Chinesedoctorsuseacupunctureanesthesiatoperformcertainoperations"isafactthatcannotbedebated.Butifitischangedinto"acupunctureanesthesiashouldreplaceconventionalanesthesiainalloperations",itbecomesdebatable.2)Statementsofpersonalpreference"BaJinismyfavoriteauthor"expressespersonalpreferencewhichdoesnotleadtodispute.Butastatementlike"BaJinisthegreatestChinesewriterofthe20thcentury"isdisputableandsufficientevidenceshouldbeprovided.3)ViewpointsthataregenerallyacceptedorcanbeeasilyverifiedItisuniversallyknownthat"noisepollutionisharmfultopeople'shealth",butitisnotgenerallyacceptedthat"noisepollutionisthemostharmfulofallenvironmentalpollution".Theformerviewpointcanbeproved,butthelaterisarguable.(2)SufficientevidenceSincethepointofyourpaperisnotafact,astatementofpersonaltaste,oraviewpointuniversallyaccepted,youwillhavetoprovidesufficientevidencetoconvincethereader.Sufficientevidenceincludescommonknowledge;specificexamples;hard,notsoft,evidence,orfacts,notopinions,unlesstheopinionsareexpertandauthoritative;statistics;andquotationsfromauthorities.Validevidenceisthatwhichisclearlyanddirectlyconnectedwiththepointtobeproved.(3)GoodlogicItisobviousthatgoodlogicisevenmoreimportanttoargumentationthantoanyothertypesofwriting.Allthefactsandreasonsthataregivenasevidenceshouldbelogicallyconnectedwiththeconclusionandwitheachother.Anyfallacyinlogicorwrongstepinreasoningwouldleavethereaderindoubtaboutthewholeargument.Therearegenerallytwowaysofreasoning:1)InductivereasoningInductivereasoningisthemorecommonway.Whenyouuseinduction,youstartwithfactsandproceedfromfactstoageneralconclusion.Inotherwords,youmovefromspecificexamplestoageneralstatement.2)Deductive

139reasoningTheprocessisjusttheoppositeofinductivereasoning-itmovesfromageneralstatementtoaspecificconclusion.Itworksonthemodelofsyllogism-athree-partargumentinwhichtherearetwostatements,knownasthemajorpremiseandtheminorpremise,andaconclusion.Hereisanexampleofasyllogism:A.Allhumanbeingsmakemistakes.B.Xisahumanbeing.C.Therefore,Xmakesmistakes.Fromtheaboveexamplewecanseethatthemajorpremisemustbeanacceptedgeneralization,andtheminor,afactualexampleofthatgeneralization.IfAandBaretrue,Ctheconclusionisboundtobetrue.Youmustbeverycarefulaboutyoupremises,especiallyyourmajorpremise.Suchstatementsas"allstudentslovetostudy"and"womenaremoreimaginativethanmen"arenotgenerallyaccepted,andthereforecannotbeusedasmajorpremises.(4)ClearlogicAtypicalargumentativeessayconsistsofthreeparts:anintroductionwhichidentifiestheissuetobediscussedandexplainstheimportanceofsuchadiscussion;abodywhichpresentstheevidence;andaconclusioninwhichtheproposition,ifitisstatedatthebeginning,isreaffirmed.Inthebody,itisadvisablethatyoudevotethefirstoneortwoparagraphstoaconsiderationoftheothersideofthecasebeforestatingandamplifyingyourownviews.Thenineachparagraphthatfollows,youaddsomethingnewandimportanttoyourargument.TheevidenceyouprovideshouldbearrangedA.fromtheleasttothemostimportant,B.fromthemostfamiliartotheleastfamiliar,andC.fromtheeasiesttoacceptorcomprehendtothemostdifficult.(5)Gooduseoftheotherthreetypesofwriting-description,narration,andespeciallythevariousmethodsofexposition.(6)AnhonestandfriendlyattitudeToargueisnottoquarrel.Theforceofanargumentdoesnotcomefromabuse,sarcasm,exaggeration,orfierceattacks,butfromsolidevidence,logicalreasoning,andcarefulanalysis.Adomineeringorhostiletonecouldonlyraisedoubtsaboutyourgoodfaithandimpairthecredibilityofyourargument,whereasanhonestandfriendlyattitudewillhelpwinthetrustofyourreaders.Takecarethatyouneitheroverstateorunderstate,andavoidoveruseofsuchwordsandphrasesas"perhaps","maybe","sometimes","mostoften","nearlyalways,""Ithink",or"inmyopinion",whichinvariablyweakentheforceofyourargument.ModelsA.TheControlofDeath

140Itishardermorallytojustifylettingsomebodydieaslowanduglydeath,dehumanized,thanitistojustifyhelpinghimtoescapefromsuchmisery.Thisisthecaseatleastinanycodeofethicsthatishumanisticorpersonalistic,i.e.,inanycodeofethicsthatputshumannessandpersonalintegrityabovebiologicallifeandfunction.Whatfollowsisamoraldefenseofeuthanasia.Primarily,Imeanactiveorpositiveeuthanasia,whichhelpsthepatienttodie;notmerelythepassiveornegativeformofeuthanasia,which"letsthepatientgo"bysimplywith-holdinglife-preservingtreatments.Theplainfactisthatnegativeeuthanasiaisalreadyafaitaccompliinmodernmedicine.Everydayinahundredhospitalsacrossthelanddecisionsaremadeclinicallythatthelinehasbeencrossedfromprolonginggenuinelyhumanlifetoprolongingonlysubhumandying.Whenthatjudgmentismade,respiratorsareturnedoff,life-perpetuatingintravenousinfusionsstopped,proposedsurgerycanceledanddrugscountermanded."Code90"stickersareputonmanyrecordjackets,indicating"Givenointensivecareorresuscitation."Arguingproandconaboutnegativeeuthanasiaisthereforeirrelevant.Ethically,theissueofwhethertoletthepatientgoisalreadysettled.Givenmodernmedicine'scapabilities,alwaystodowhatistechnicallypossibletoprolonglifewouldbemorallyindefensibleonanygroundotherthanvitalisticoutlook;thatis,thatbiologicalsurvivalisthefirst-ordervalueandthatallotherconsiderations,suchaspersonality,dignity,well-beingandself-possession,necessarilytakesecondplace.Vestigiallast-ditchprovitalistsstillmumblethreateninglyabout"whattheNazisdid,"but,infact,theNazisneverengagedineuthanasiaormercykilling;whattheydidwasmercilesskilling,eithergenocidalorforruthlessexperimentalpurposes.Thetraditionalethicsbasedonthesanctityoflife-whichwastheclassicdoctrineofmedicalidealisminitsprescientificphases-mustgivewaytoacodeofethicsbasedonthequalityoflife.Thisnewethicscomesaboutforhumanereasons.Itisaresultofmodernmedicine'ssuccesses,notfailures.Newoccasionsteachnewduties;timemakesancientgooduncouth,asWhittiersaid.Manyofuslookuponlivinganddyingaswedouponhealthandmedicalcare-aspersoncentered.Thisisnotsolelyorbasicallyabiologicalunderstandingofwhatitmeanstobe"alive"andtobe"dead".Itassertsthataso-calledvegetable,abrain-damagedvictimofanautoaccidentoramicroencephalicnewbornoracaseofmassiveneurologicdeficitandlostcerebralcapacity,isnolongerahumanbeing,nolongeraperson,nolongerreallyalive.Itispersonalfunctionthatcounts,notbiologicalfunction.Humannessisunderstoodasprimarilyrational,notphysiological.Thisdoctrineofmanputsmanandreasonbeforelife.Itholdsthatbeinghumanismore"valuable"thanbeingalive.Mostofourmajormoralproblemsareposedbyscientificdiscoveriesandbythesubsequenttechnicalknow-howwegaininthecontrolofhealth,lifeanddeath.Ethicalquestionsjumpoutatusfromeverylaboratoryandclinic.Everyadvanceinmedicalcapabilitiesisanincreaseinourmoralresponsibilityawideningoftherangeofourdecision-making

141obligations.Genetics,molecularbiology,fetologyandobstetricshavedevelopedtoapointwherewenowhaveeffectivecontroloverthestartofhumanlife'scontinuum.Whathastakenplaceinbirthcontrolisequallyimperativeindeathcontrol.Thewholearmoryofresuscitationandprolongationoflifeforcesustoberesponsibledecisionmakersaboutdeathaswellasaboutbirth;theremustbeasmuchqualitycontrolintheterminatingoflifeasinitsinitiating.Itisridiculoustogiveethicalapprovaltothepositiveendingofsubhumanlifeinutero,aswedointherapeuticabortionsforreasonsofmercyandcompassion,buttorefuseapprovalofpositivelyendingasubhumanlifeinextremis.Acarefultypologyofelectivedeathwilldistinguishatleastfourforms-waysofdyingthatarenotwilly-nillymattersofblindchancebutofchoice,purposeandresponsiblefreedom.(1)Euthanasia,ora"gooddeath,"canbevoluntaryanddirect,i.e.,chosenandcarriedoutbythepatient.Themostfamiliarwayistheoverdoseleftnearathandforthepatient.Itisasimplematterofrequestandofpersonalliberty.Toholdthateuthanasiainthiscategoryisjustifiableentailsarejectionofthesimplisticcanardthatallsuicidevictimsarementallydisordered.Voluntaryeuthanasiais,ofcourse,aformofsuicide.Presumablyarelatedissuearisesaroundtheconventionalnotionofconsentinmedicalethics.Thecodes(AmericanMedicalAssociation,Helsinki,WorldMedicalAssociation,Nuremberg)allcontendthatvalidconsenttosurgeryoranykindofmedicaltreatmentrequiresareasonableprospectofbenefittothepatient.What,then,isbenefit?Coulddeathinsomesituationsbeabenefit?Myownanswerisintheaffirmative.(2)Euthanasiacanbevoluntarybutindirect.Thechoicemightbemadeeitherinsituorlonginadvanceofaterminalillness,e.g.,byexactingapromisethatifandwhenthe"barebodkin"orpotioncannotbeself-administered,somebodywilldoitforthepatient.Inthiscase,thepatientgivestoothers-physicians,lawyers,family,friends-thediscretiontoenditallasandwhenthesituationrequires,ifthepatientbecomescomatoseortoodysfunctionaltomakethedecision.(3)Euthanasiamaybedirectbutinvoluntary.Thisistheforminwhichasimplemercykillingisdoneonapatient'sbehalfwithouthispresentorpastrequest.Instanceswouldbegivinganidiotafataldose;speedingupthedeathofachildintheworststagesofTay-Sachsdisease;shootingamantrappedinextricablyinablazingfiretoendhissuffering;ororderinga"shutdown"onapatientdeepinanirreversiblemindlesscondition,perhapsduetoaninjuryoraninfectionorsomebiologicalbreakdown.Itisinthisform,directbutinvoluntary,thattheproblemhasreachedthecourtsinlegalchargesandindictments.Tomyknowledge,Uruguayistheonlycountrythatallowsthistypeofeuthanasia.Article37oftheCodigaPenalspecificallystatesthatalthoughitisa"crime,"thecourtsareauthorizedtoforgoanypenalty.Intimetheworldwillfollowsuit.LawsinColombiaandintheSovietUnionaresimilartothoseofUruguay,butintheircodesfreedomfrompunishmentistheexceptionratherthanthenorm.InItaly,GermanyandSwitzerlandthelawprovidesforareductionofpenaltieswheneuthanasiaisdoneuponthepatient's

142request.(4)Finally,euthanasiamightbebothindirectandinvoluntary.Thisisthe"letting-the-patient-go"tacticthatistakingplaceeverydayinourhospitals.Nothingisdonepositivelyforthepatienttoreleasehimfromhistragiccondition(otherthan"tryingtomakehimcomfortable"),andwhatisdonenegativelyisdecidedforhimratherthaninresponsetohisrequest.Butethicallyregarded,thisindirectandinvoluntaryformofeuthanasiaismanifestlysuperficial,morallytimidandevasiveoftherealissue.Irepeatit:itishardermorallytojustifylettingsomebodydieaslowanduglydeath,dehumanized,thanitistojustifyhelpinghimtoavoidit.What,then,istherealissue?Briefly,itiswhetherwecanmorallyjustifytakingitintoourownhandstohastendeathforourselves(suicide)orforothers(mercykilling)outofreasonsofcompassion.Theanswertothisinmyviewisclearlyyesonbothsidesofit.Indeed,tojustifyeitherone,suicideormercykilling,istojustifytheother.Theheartofthematteranalyticallyisthequestionofwhethertheendjustifiesthemeans.Iftheendsoughtisthepatient'sdeathasareleasefrompointlessmiseryanddehumanization,thentherequisiteorappropriatemeansisjustified.ImmanuelKantsaidthatifwewilltheendwewillthemeans.Theoldmaximofsomemoraltheologianswasfinissanctificatmedia.Thepointisthatnoactisanythingbutrandomandmeaninglessunlessitispurposefullyrelatedtosomeendorobject.Tobemoral,anactmustbeseekinganend.Thereallysearchingquestionofconscienceis,therefore,whetherwearerightinbelievingthatthewell-beingofpersonsisthehighestgood.Ifso,thenitfollowsthateithersuicideormercykillingcouldbetherightthingtodoinsomeexigentandtragiccircumstances.Anotherwayofputtingthisistosaythatthecrucialquestionisnotwhethertheendjustifiesthemeans(whatelsecould?)butwhatjustifiestheend?Andmyansweris,plainlyandconfidently,thathumanhappinessandwell-beingarethehighestgood,and,therefore,anyendsorpurposesvalidatedbythatstandardoridealarejust,right,good.Thisreasoningiswhathumanisticmedicineisallabout;itiswhattheconceptsoflovingconcernandsocialjusticearebuiltupon.Theplainhardlogicofitisthattheend,orpurpose,ofbothnegativeandpositiveeuthanasiaisexactlythesame:tobringaboutthepatient'sdeath.Actsofdeliberateomissionaremorallynotdifferentfromactsofcommission.CarefulstudyofthebasictextsoftheHippocraticOathshowsthatitsaysnothingatallaboutpreservinglifeassuch.Itsaysthat"sofaraspoweranddiscernmentshallbemine,Iwillcarryoutregimensforthebenefitofthesickandwillkeepthemfromharmandwrong,"Thecaseforeuthanasiadependsuponhowweunderstand"benefitofthesick"and"harm"and"wrong."Ifweregardpreservingdehumanizedandmerelybiologicallifeassometimesbeingreallyharmfulandnotbeneficial,torefusetowelcomeorevenintroducedeathwouldbequitewrongmorally.Inmoststatesinthiscountrypeoplecananddocarrycards,legallyestablishedbytheAnatomicalGiftActs,explainingthatwhenthecarrierdieshewisheshisorgansandtissuetobeusedfortransplantwhenneededbytheliving.Thedaywillcomewhenpeoplewillalsobeabletocarryacard,notarizedandlegallyexecuted,

143explainingthattheydonotwanttobekeptalivebeyondthehumanumpointandauthorizingtheendingoftheirbiologicalprocessesbyanymethodofeuthanasiathatseemsappropriate.Suicidemayormaynotbetheultimateproblemofphilosophy,asAlbertCamusthought,butinanycaseitistheultimateproblemofmedicalethics.-JosephFletcherB.KillingforSportItwouldn'tbequitetruetosaythat"someofmybestfriendsarehunters."Still,Idonumberamongmyrespectedacquaintancessomewhonotonlykillforthesakeofkillingbutcountitamongtheirkeenestpleasures.AndIcanthinkofnobetterillustrationofthefactthatmenmaybeseparatedatsomepointbyafathomlessabyssyetshareelsewheremuchcommonground.Tome,itisinconceivablethatanyonecanthinkofananimalmoreinterestingdeadthanalive,Icanalsoeasilyprove,tomyownsatisfaction,thatkilling"forsport"istheperfecttypeofthatpureevilforwhichmetaphysicianshavesometimessought.Mostwickeddeedsaredonebecausethedoerproposessomegoodforhimself.Theliarliestogainsomeend;theswindlerandthethiefwantthingswhich,ifhonestlygot,mightbegoodinthemselves.Eventhemurdererisusuallyremovingsomeimpedimenttonormaldesires.Thoughalloftheseareselfishorunscrupulous,theirdeedsarenotgratuitouslyevil.Butthekillerforsportseemstohavenosuchexcusablemotive.Heseemsmerelytopreferdeathtolife,darknesstolight.Heseemstogetnothingotherthanthesatisfactionofsaying:"Somethingwhichwantedtoliveisdead.BecauseIcanbringterrorandagony,IassuremyselfthatIhavepower.Becauseofmethereisthatmuchlessvitality,consciousnessandperhapsjoyintheuniverse.Iamthespiritthatdenies."Whenamanwantonlydestroysoneoftheworksofman,wecallhim"Vandal."WhenhewantonlydestroysoneoftheworksofGod,wecallhim"Sportsman."Thehunter-for-foodmaybeaswickedandasmisguidedasvegetarianssometimessay,buthedoesnotkillforthesakeofkilling.Theranchersandthefarmerswhoexterminatealllivingthingsnotimmediatelyprofitabletothemmaysometimesbeworkingagainsttheirownbestinterests;butwhethertheyareorarenot,theyhopetoachievesomesupposedgoodbytheexterminations.Iftodoevil,notinthehopeofgainbutforevil'ssake,involvesthedeepestguiltbywhichmancanbestained,thenkillingforkilling'ssakeisaterrifyingphenomenonandasstrongaproofaswecouldhaveofthat"realityofevil"withwhichpresent-daytheologiansareagainconcerned.-JosephWoodKrutchC.TheThreeGorgesProjectIsBeneficialTheThreeGorgeslieinthemiddlereachesoftheYangtzeRiver.Afteryearsofinvestigationandresearch,manyscientistsandengineershavesuggestedthattocontrolthefloodsbroughtbytheYangtzeRivertoitslowerreaches,alargedam

144shouldbebuiltthere.Butmanyotherscientistsandengineersdisagree.Thusaheateddebatehasbegunastowhethertheprojectisbeneficial.Iaminfavoroftheprojectandbelievethatitwillhavemoreadvantagesthandisadvantages.Thosewhoareagainsttheprojectarguethattheprojectwillbringaboutseriousconsequences.TheThreeGorgesareamongthemostbeautifulandfamousscenicplacesinChina.Herethetouristsseenotonlythenaturalscenery,butalsoalotofancientculturalrelics,whichareofgreathistoricalvalue.Manyofthoseplacesofinterestwillbesubmergedwhenthedamretainswateratthenormallevel(175m).TheprojectwillaffecttheecologicalenvironmentoftheYangtzeRiver.Somerarespeciesofaquaticanimalsarefacedwiththedangerofextinction.Moreover,theriver-bedwillbeworsened.Moreseriously,whenthedambeginstoretainwater,theremaybeearthquakesandlandslipsintheThreeGorgesarea.ThePersianGulfWargaverisetoanotherdoubt:ifthereshouldbeawarandtheThreeGorgesDamdestroyed,theconsequencewouldbeghastly.Inshort,therisksoftheprojectmaybetoogreatforittobebeneficial.Theirworriesandwarningsarewelljustified.Butweshouldnotgiveeatingforfearofchoking.Firstofall,thefeasibilityoftheprojecthasbeenthoroughlyexamined.Anewfeasibilityreportbyhundredsofexpertshasbeensubmittedtothegovernment.Inthereport,alltheharmfuleffectshavebeentakenintoconsiderationandappropriatemeasuressuggested.Forexample,tosolvetheproblemofearthquakesandlandslipsthatmaybecausedbytheproject,monitoringandforecastingwillhavetobestressed.ThesuccessoftheGezhouDamwhichhasstoodthetestsofmanygreatfloodsprovesthatourtechnologyofwaterconservancyisuptothemarkandabletowithstandthestiffesttestofnaturaldisasters.ItisestimatedthatoncetheThreeGorgesProjectiscompleted,thelossinagriculturecausedbyfloodswillbereducedbysixtoeighthundredmillionyuaneachyear;ifthereisacatastrophicflood,thelosswillbereducedbytwentybillionyuan.Moreimportantly,theprojectwillprotectthelivesofthreehundredandfiftymillionpeoplelivingintheplaineastofthedam.Thehydropowerstationonthedamwillhaveageneratingcapacityrankingfirstintheworld,fivetimesthatofGezhouDam.Thatmeanseachyearfiftymilliontonsofcoalwillbesaved.Theelectricpoweritwillproducewillgreatlypushthedevelopmentofindustryinourcountry.TheprojectwillimprovethetransportationoftheYangtzeRiver.Thosedangerousshoalsandrapidsinthegorgestodaywilldisappear.Theriverinthedamareawillbebroadened.Asaresult,giantvesselswillbeabletosailstraightfromShanghaitoChongqing.ThisisofvitalimportancetotheeconomicdevelopmentofSichuanProvince.ItisclearthattheThreeGorgesProjectwillbebeneficialtothecountry.Everythinghasitsadvantagesanddisadvantages.Sincetheprojectwillbringmorebenefitsthanlosses,itisworthwhiletotakesomerisks.-StudentD.LifeCanBeHappyandMeaningful

145Notlongago,apollwasconductedamongstudentsinamiddleschool.Theywereaskedtomakeachoicebetweenthesetwosentences-"Noonecanbehappy",and"Onecanbehappy."Shockinglyenough,about20percentofthestudentsagreedtothefirststatement.WhenIaskedsomeofmyfriendsfortheiropinions,mostofthemthoughttheformerstatementwastrue.Whenaskedforexplanations,theysaid,"Franklyspeaking,lifeisbitterandmeaningless.Buttoliveon,we'dbettersaytoourselvesthatthereishappinessinlife."Ihavebeenthinkingofthisquestioneversince.ThemoreIthink,themoreIamconvincedthatifwehavearightattitudetowardslife,ourlivescansurelybehappyandmeaningful.Itistruethatallpeoplehavesomebitterexperiences.Butitisthroughovercominghardshipsthatourhappinessemerges.ManypeopleadmireMadamCurie,andsaywithasigh,"IfIcouldlivelikeher,Iwouldbethehappiestpersonintheworld."Butifwetakeacloselookatherlife,wewillfindherhappinessiscloselyconnectedwithhermisfortunes.Firstofall,shedidnothaveahappychildhood.WhenshewasinFrance,shestudiestwiceashardasothersbutlivedapoorandsimplelife.Inherresearchwork,shehadtosituplatenightafternight.Sheexperiencedmanylosses,too-shelostherbelovedfather,herdearhusband,andlaterhereyesight.Butshenevercomplainedandneverstoppedworkingforthebenefitofmankind.Thatiswhyherlifewashappyandmeaningful.Shefoughtagainstlife'sbitternessanddifficultiesandconqueredthemall.Somepeoplecomplainthattheirworkisinsignificantandthustheirlivesaremeaningless.Butwhatkindofworkissignificant?Workers,peasants,teachers,andscientists,theyareallworkingforthewelfareofmankind,themselvesincluded.Thatiswherethemeaningoflifelies.Butsomepeopleseemtothinklittleofsuchalife.Onceafriendofminetoldmehefeltverywretchedforhavingtoworkasateacher."Ourlivescanbecomparedtocandles.Whilegivinglighttoothers,weourselvesareburningout.Ourstudentsmaybecomefamousoneday,butwhatwillbecomeofus?Weshallonlyremainwhatweare-famelessandwealthless."Paradoxically,Iwouldratherthinkhewasgivingavividdescriptionofthenoblenessofateacher.IfIcanlivethelifeofateacher,tocontributetheonlythingIown-myknowledge-totheupbringingofyoungpeople,Iwillbeveryhappy,becauseIamusefultoothers.Differentpeoplemaythinkoflifedifferently.ButofonethingIamcertain:happinessneverfavorsthosewhomerelycareaboutthemselves,andthemeaningoflifecannotbeunderstoodbythosewhorefusetosacrificeanythingforothers.-StudentDescriptionⅠ.Descriptionofaperson1.Readthemodelessaysanddiscusswhatmainimpressionseachwriterwishestogiveofthepersondescribed.2.Describeaperson.Thepersonmay

146be(1)someoneyouknowwell,suchasafamilymember,arelative,ateacheroraclassmate,acolleagueorafriend;(2)somestrangerwhoattractedyourattentionandmadeadeepimpressiononyou;(3)somecharacterinabook,afilmoraTVshow;(4)yourself.Besuretogivewellchosendetailsoftheperson'sappearance,character,behaviororwhateverworthmentioning.Donotwriteingeneralitiesbutfocusononeortwoaspectsandtryto"show"byexamplesinsteadof"tell"inwords—notehowKissingerusestheexampleoftheyounginterpretertoshowChinesepeople'sloveforPremierChouEnlai.Ⅱ.Descriptionofaplace1.Readthemodelessaysanddiscussthedevicesusedbytheauthors,theimpressionstheycreateandthepurposesofdescription.2.Describeaplace.Itmaybe(1)ascenicspot,apark,agarden,atheater,amarketplace,ashoppingcenter,ahotellobby,anexhibition,aflowershow,amuseum,etc.;(2)asiheyuan,acompoundwithhousesaroundacourtyard,inBeijing;(3)someone'sstudy,bedroom,living-room,kitchen,etc.3.DescribeadormitoryoffourstudentstoshowthatAisneatandtidyandtime-conscious,Biswarm-heartedandlovessports,Cisacarelessmusiclover,andDismoreinterestedinfashionsthaninhisorherstudies.Ⅲ.Descriptionofanobject1.Readthemodelessayanddiscussthedevicestheauthorusesandhispurposeofdescription.2.Describeanobject.Itmaybe(1)apainting,anoldphoto,anarticleofhandlcraftart,atablet,atombstone,etc.;(2)anexhibitinamuseumoranexhibition,suchasanunearthedartifact,anewproductorhouseholdgadget;(3)anancientChineseinventionsuchastheearliestcompass;(4)apailou(afree-standingarch),oranyotherexampleofChinesearchitecture;(5)acloudpillar,astonelion,orotherexamplesofculture-loadedobjects.Ⅳ.Descriptionofascene1.Readthemodelessaysandcommentonthedominantimpressionstheygivethereaderandhowtheseimpressionsarecreatedthroughthesetting,thepeopleandtheactions.2.Describeascene.Itmaybe(1)a(birthday)party,acelebration,awedding,ademonstration,anaccident,etc.;(2)someone'shomecomingordeparture.

147Decideontheeffect(s)youwanttoachievebeforeyoubeginsothatyouressaywillincludeonlytherelevantdetails.Ⅴ.Writeadescriptionof1.howpeoplecelebratetheMid-autumnorSpringFestivalinyourhometown;2.somespecialcustomoftheHannationalityoranyoftheminoritynationalitiesinChina.Ⅵ.Chooseyourowntopicandwriteadescriptionofaperson,place,object,orscene.NarrationⅠ.Readthemodelessayscarefullyanddiscuss:1.Havetheauthorsmadeclearwhen,where,andtowhomtheactioninthenarrativehappenedatthebeginning?2.Whatisthepurposeofeachstory?3.Arethedetailsselectedusefulandeffective?4.Howaretheeventsorganized?5.Canthethreefirst-personnarrativesbechangedintothird-personnarratives?Whataretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthechange?Ⅱ.Writeafirst-personnarrativedescribing1.thehappiestorsaddestormostmemorableormostimportantdayinyourlife,forexample,yourfirstdayatschool,thedaywhenyouweregivenaninterview,thedaywhenyougotyourfirstpay,thedaywhensomeone(ateacher,afriendoracolleague)walkedintoyourlife,thedaywhensomethingchangedthecourseofyourlife;2.anincidentwhichhastaughtyousomething;or3.someexperienceyouwillneverforget.Ⅲ.Writeathird-personnarrativeusinganyofthetopicslistedabove.Ⅳ.Writeanarrativetelling1.theoriginofzongze,thethree-cornereddumplingspeciallyeatenontheDragonBoatFestival,orsomeotherChinesecustom;2.thelegendoftheCowherdandtheGirlWeaver,thestoryofLiangShanboandZhuYingtai,orsomewell-knownChineselegendwhichmightbeofinteresttoforeigners.Ⅴ.Chooseyourowntopicandwriteanarrative.Notethatsomeofthetopicsfordescriptionofascenecanalsobeusedfornarration,butthefocusisdifferent.Anarrativehasaplotwithabeginning,amiddle,andan

148end.Ifascenecanbecomparedtoapicture,thenanarrativemaybecomparedtoamotionpicture.Whenplanningyournarrative,decideonyourpurposeandthenchoosedetailsanddesignyourplotinagreementwithyourpurpose.Besuretomakethecontextquiteclearatthebeginningandconsideralsotheorganizationandpointofview.Ifyoulike,youmayturnwhatyouhavewrittenforadescriptionofasceneintoanarrative.Insodoing,youmayhaveabetterunderstandingofthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwo.ExpositionⅠ.Illustration1.Readthemodelessaysandcommentontheauthors'selectionofexamples.Aretheresufficientexamplestoillustratetheauthors'points?Aretheexamplesspecificandtypical?Aretheyrelevantandinteresting?Howdotheauthorsgroupandarrangetheirexamples?2.Writeanessayononeofthefollowingtopics:(1)CollegeStudents'EverydayExpensesAreHigh(2)ChangesinMyHomeTownorBeijingintheLast...Yearsorsince...(3)LifeonCampusIsInteresting(orMonotonous)(4)ThereIsaGenerationGap(5)SundayIstheBusiestDayoftheWeektoMeortoManyChinese(6)WhattheServiceTradesCanDoforUs3.Writeanillustrationpaperdiscussingthefeudalisticthinkingofsomeyoungpeopletoday.Youmaystartbyconsideringsomeofthepointslistedinthearticlebelow.Givespecificandtypicalexamplestoillustrateyourpoint(s).青年人也有封建思想

149封建制度在我国长达数千年之久。时至今日，残余的封建思想仍在社会生活的许多领域内发生影响，使某些青年自觉或不自觉地成为充任封建思想的活动载体。一、干涉父母再婚。有的青年人把父母的再婚看作是"丢人现眼"，"伤风败俗"而横加干涉。二、信奉男尊女卑。自从实行一对夫妇只生一胎的政策以来，“传宗接代”，"多子多福"的封建思想又在某些年轻人身上产生效应。三、寻求人生依附。一些年轻人在选择职业时，考虑自身素质是否能胜任某项工作的需要较少，向组织要求到父母或亲属所在的系统去工作的较多。四、讲究哥们义气。十年动乱，"哥们义气"的思想又在少数意志薄弱的青少年中传播开来。五。畸形贞操观念。女子婚前保持贞操是符合社会主义伦理要求的美德，一旦被迫失身受到社全的歧视或自暴自弃。则是封建的贞操观念在作崇。六、参与迷信活功。一些青年在现实工作和生活中遇到矛盾挫折心里苦恼，往往容易接受封建迷信的影响。七、卷入陈规陋习的旋涡。随着社会生产力的发展和人们经济收入的增加，我们民族生活方式中的某些陈规陋习又日渐抬头。特别是一些农村青年在婚姻问题上表现比较严重。八、特权思想严重。近年来，特权思想在少数干部子女身上暴露得比较充分。他们凭借家长的职权和政治影响，捞取实惠，甚至索贿受贿，成为人民的罪人。（摘自《青年与社会》）4.Chooseyourowntopicandwriteanillustrationpaper.Listalltheexamplesthatcometoyourmind,examinethemandcrossoutthosewhichareirrelevant,uninteresting,andnottypical;groupwhatyouhaveleftandarrangetheminclimacticorder.Ⅱ.DivisionandClassification1.Studythemodelessaysandpointouttheprincipleofdivisionorclassificationineachessay.Istheprincipleinterestingandsignificant?Isitappliedconsistentlyandthoroughly?2.AccordingtoFrancisBacon,"studiesservefordelight,forornament,andforability,"and"somebooksaretobetasted,otherstobeswallowed,andsomefewtobechewedanddigested."Doyouagreewithhim?Writeanessayon"Studies"or"Books".3.Writeanessayon:(1)Youthofthe1990s(2)QualificationsforaGoodTeacherorStudent(3)MyRequirementsforaFriend(4)WaysofSpendingOne'sSpareTime(5)KindsofSecondJobs(6)DifferentAttitudestowardWork,Life,Death,orIllnessTakecarethatyourprincipleofdivisionorclassificationisinterestingandsignificantandappliedconsistentlyandthoroughly.Choosegoodexamplestoillustrateyourpointandavoidoverlapping.4.Chooseyourowntopicandwriteanexpositoryessayusingdivisionorclassificationasthemodeofdevelopment.Ⅲ.Comparisonand/orContrast1.Readthemodelessaysandanalysethepatternofeachessay.Arethetwoitemsbeingcomparedorcontrastedgivenequaltreatment?Doesthewriteruseaconsistentorderandmakeaconsistentarrangementofparagraphs?Isthecomparisonorcontrastsupportedbyconcreteandrelevantfacts?Whatpointdoeseachessaymake?Asyouread,underlinethetransitionsusedincomparisonorcontrast.2.Writeanessayononeofthefollowingtopics,comparingorcontrasting(1)LifeinMiddleSchoolandinCollege(2)ChineseandForeign

150Teachers(3)Youthofthe1990sandYouthofthe1950s(4)TravelingbyTrainandbyPlane(5)ChineseandWesternMedicineorFood(6)Twopersons(suchaswriters,friends,figuresinhistory,charactersinabookortwobooks);twothings(suchasbooks,films,universities);ortwoplaces(suchasstores,placesofhistoricinterest,cities)3.Writeanessayonvaluesofdifferentgenerationsconcerningfamily,marriage,oreducationofchildren.Thefollowingarticlesmayhelptosetyourmindworking.A.婚姻子女观的代际差异恐怕在婚姻、家庭及子女观上，最能体现代际之间的差异了。例如对离婚的看法。老年人中认为“不管怎样离婚总归不好”的倾向最重，占老年人总数的46%；而青年人中，只有27%的人持此看法。他们最倾向于“只要两人愿意就应离”的选择，而且认为“一个人愿意离就行"的人数比例也是青年最高。实际上，在所有的年龄段中持“只要两人愿意就应离”的人都在40%以上。在今天，即便是青年人，认为应该有自己的孩子者也占有80%以上，中国市民重视子女生育的观念一如既往。但青年中认为“无所谓”（16%）、认为“没孩子为好”（3.3%）的人数比例，却远高于中老年人。进一步看看为什么要有孩子的原因，可以看出这是传统观念（只重义务）和现代观念（尊重人的自主与幸福）的分野点。在这一点上，与上面相对应，无论青、中、老年，至少40%的人认为"养育子女是人的义务"，但青年人中选择“没有子女人生就不完满”者（37.8%），明显高于中老年，显示他们不仅将此视之为义务，也同时视之为人生幸福的内容。选择“传宗接代”、“养儿防老”等项的人，总的来说都很少，这类观念和城市文明现实到底相去太远。尚晓园B．中国人的道德观

151此次“改革中的社会心理”调查问卷中，设置了一组“您认为什么是最重要的基本道德”的问题，罗列出“诚实、孝敬父母、谦让、热爱祖国、主持公道、受恩必报、守信用、礼貌待人”等八项道德供人任选两项。从整体的百分比统计结果看，首先是选择项目较为一致集中，选择“诚实”都占56.1%，选择“孝敬父母”和“热爱祖国”的均在35%左右。这说明经过十年动乱的震荡以及外来文化的冲击，市民中仍保持了较为一致的价值观。但同时也表明他们的道德观还偏于传统类型。现代商品经济社会对“守信用”无疑比对“诚实”更看重，但选择“守信用”的人仅占有18.3%。在性别差异上看，女性选择“诚实”、“孝敬父母”等项都稍多，男性选择“守信用”等项者稍多，既表现了女性在社会活动能力较之男性略弱的情况，也反映了我国城市妇女与男性同样参加工作，参与社会生活的现实。不同职业者间，呈现了道德观上有趣的不同，教师选择“诚实”的指数高，干部则偏于“主持公道”项；商业人员较多投票于“礼貌待人”项。个体劳动者成为近年来市民中一较特殊群体，其道德选择多数显著偏离全体频数，对“诚实”、“谦让”、“主持公道”几项明显偏低、对“孝敬父母”、“守信用”、“受恩必报”几项又明显偏高，也许说明了他们正以某种带有较强传统色彩的方式，进行着商品经济生活的过渡。这种变化趋势潜在地表现于不同年龄者选择的差异中。如“热爱祖国”，青年组对它的选择低于中年组14个百分点，低于老年组22个百分点；“守信用”是典型的现代型道德，青年组又明显高于中年及老年组，表现出这一代人向现代类型的转化。但“热爱祖国”观念在现代化进程中有很重要的意义，这个观念对青年人影响偏低，是值得注意的发展趋势。黄一丁4.SomeofthetopicsfordivisionorclassificationlistedinⅡ3canalsobeusedforcomparisonand/orcontrast,butthefocusandstressaresomewhatdifferent.Ifyouhavewrittenadivisionorclassificationessayononeofthetopics,youmaytrytowriteapaperonthesametopic,usingcomparisonand/orcontrastasthemodeofdevelopment.5.Chooseyourowntopicandwriteacomparisonand/orcontrastpaper.Afteryouhavedecidedonyoursubjectandpurpose,listalltheitemsforcomparisonand/orcontrastandthenchoosethepatternwhichbetterservesyourpurpose.Ofcourse,youmayusebothpatternsifnecessary.Rememberthatthecomparisonand/orcontrastshouldbebalancedandsupportedbyconcreteandrelevantfacts.Payattentionalsotoyouruseoftransitions,which,whenappropriatelyemployed,helptobringoutyourpointclearly.Ⅳ.CauseandEffect1.Readthemodelessaysandcommentoneachauthor'sanalysisofcauseand/oreffect.Hasthewritermadeclearthemajorcause(s)or/andeffect(s)?Isheobjective?Doeshesupporthisanalysiswithsolid,factualevidence?2.Writeacause-effectpaperononeofthefollowingtopics:(1)WhyPeopleWanttoLearnaForeignLanguage(2)WhySomeStudentsMakeBetterProgressThanOthers(3)WhyManyYoungMenDoNotWanttoMarryCapableYoungWomen(4)JobDiscriminationagainstWomeninChina(5)Causesand/orEffectsofDivorceinChina3.Writeapaperon"WhyPeopleSmoke".Thefollowingarticlemayhaveafewpointsworthconsidering.上海女青年为何抽烟多近年来，上海女青年抽烟现象日趋严重，成为社会中一个突出性的问题，通过抽样调查，发现上海女青年抽烟多有以下几个因素。一是讲派头，追求“灰色风度”。有一些音乐茶座及咖啡馆里，有一部分女青年本来并不会抽烟，然而，由于受“抽烟能体现出女性的风度”等错误的想法的影响，不少女青年对自己能吐出一串串烟圈而倍加欣赏，以为这才是真正女性的风度美。

152二是受文艺作品影响、盲目效仿。一些小说、电影及电视里，尤其是一些国外电影和电视，常常有女子抽烟的内容，许多女青年包括一些女中学生受此影响，认为既然文艺作品、电影和电视里都有女子抽烟，于是，就不加分析地加以效仿。三是为了社交而被迫抽烟。随着社会改革形势的发展，女青年的社交兴趣越来越强烈，社交面也越来越广泛。她们大多数认为，现在办什么事都要托人，掏出香烟好说话，把抽烟作为社会交往中密切关系、沟通思想的一种主要手段。四是在学校时就有抽烟的习惯。在调查中笔者发现，有些女青年在读书时就沾染了抽烟的坏习惯。到了单位，想戒又戒不掉。值得一提的是在个体户女青年中，有70%的人都有抽烟习惯。由此可以看出上海女青年抽烟多的原因是多方面的，希望社会、学校、家庭等都来关心这个问题。摘自《上海工业经济报》4.ReadthefollowingarticlewhichappearedinNewsweek,18March1985andwriteacause-effectpaperon"China'sSingle-ChildPolicy".ARashof"LittleEmperors"...WhenPekinglauncheditsone-childcampaignin1979,officialshadasinglegoalinmind:tocontainChina'spopulationat1.2billionbytheyear2000.Todaynearly80percentofallyoungcouplesarecomplyingwiththeone-childe-diet,andofficialssaythattheprogramhasdramaticallydefusedthepopulationexplosion.Butbydoingawaywithlargefamilies,thestatehasalsoeffectivelyeliminatedChina'straditionalcropofobedientchildren.Today'stotsarelargelyanoverindulgedlotthatcouldrivalAmerica'sMeGeneration....Andthepartyfaithfulworrythatthesekindsmightnevermakeobedientcadres."Childreninthesocialistsocietyarenottheprivatepropertyofthisorthatfamily,"warnsKangKeqingoftheAll-ChinaWomen'sFederation."[Theyare]thesuccessorsoftherevolution."...Officialshavebeguntodistributearticlesthatinstructparentsonarangeofchild-relatedproblems.Elementaryschoolsareintroducing"moraleducation"classesthatstressmannersandhumility.AndinLiaoningProvince,morethan10,000parentsnowattendhealth-careandchild-psychologyclasses.Ironically,evenasChineseofficialstrytotamethelittleemperors,theyfuelindulgentattitudesbygrantingspecialstatustoonly-children.Bylaw,suchchildrenareentitledtomonthlyhealth-careallowancesandpreferentialtreatmentinadmissiontoschools.Theyarealsopromisedfuturehousingandjobassignments.Givensuchconflictingsignals,itishardtopredicthowthetoddlerbrigadewillshapeup.Optimistssaythattoday'stotswillpioneerthewaytowardamorecreativesociety.MorecautiousobserverswonderwhatChinesesocietywilllooklikewhentoday'sspoiledchildrenaregrown-upwageearners.Bythen,the4-2-1syndromeislikelytomeanfourhelplessgrandparents,twodemandingparentsandonefrustratedyoungadultwhoisexpectedtoprovidefoodandshelterforhiselders.Itisanopenquestionwhethertoday'spamperedyoungsterswillbereadytohandlesucharesponsibility.5.Chooseyourowntopicandwriteacause-effectpaper.Ⅴ.Definition

1531.Readthemodelessaysanddiscuss:(1)Dotheyanswerthequestion"Whatis..."?(2)Aretheyexpressionsofopinionsandattitudes?(3)Whatpatterndoeseachessayfollow?Isitdeductiveorinductive?(4)Istherearestatementattheendoftheessay?2.Writeadefinitionpaperononeofthefollowingtopics:(1)Backdoorism(2)Materialism(3)Individualism(4)Happiness(5)Freedom(6)Courage(7)Values(8)Ganbu(cadre)(9)Wubaohu(ahouseholdenjoyingthefiveguarantees;childlessandinfirmoldpersonswhoareguaranteedfood,clothing,medicalcare,housing,andburialexpensesbythecollectiveorgovernment)(10)"OneCountry,TwoSystems"(11)ProjectHope(12)TheIronRiceBowlMakesurethatyourpaperanswersthequestion"Whatis...?"andexpressessomeopinionorattitude.Chooseapatternofpatternswhichbestsuityourpurpose.Ifyoulike,youmaytrytowritethesametopicusingdifferentpatternstoseethedifferenteffectsachieved.3.Chooseatopicofyourownandwriteadefinitionpaper.ArgumentationⅠ.Readthemodelessaysanddiscuss:1.Doeseachessayhaveadebatablepoint?2.Istheresufficientevidencetoconvincethereader?Whatkindofevidencedoesthepaperprovide?3.Doesthewriterconsidertheothersideoftheargumentbeforestatingandamplifyinghisorherviews?4.Isthewriter'sreasoninglogicalandeffective?5.Isthewriter'sattitudehonestandfriendlyandhistoneplacid?Ⅱ.Writeanargumentativeessayononeofthefollowingtopics:1.MercyKillingShouldBeorShouldNotBeAdvocatedinChina2.EveryoneShouldBeGivenanOpportunitytoStudyinCollege3.StudentsShouldBeorShouldNotBeAllowedorEncouragedtoGointoBusiness"4.TeachersShouldorShouldNotDependontheGovernmenttoImproveTheirLiving

154Standard5.WealthorPowerIsaSignofSuccess6.People'sWorthAreShownintheRewardTheyEarn7.Books,Plays,andFilmsShouldBeCensored8.Opportunity,Diligence,PerseveranceorResolutionIstheKeytoSuccess9.PrivateSchoolsShouldorShouldNotBeEncouragedinChina10.WeShouldorShouldNotBuildMoreLuxuryShoppingCentersinBeijing11.SingersShouldorShouldNotEarnMorethanComposers12.OlympicChampionsMakeMoreContributionstotheMotherlandthanScientistsandTeachers13.WeShouldHaveorShouldNotHaveaFive-DayWeek14.ClothesMakeaManorCosmeticsMakeaWomanⅢ.Chooseyourowntopicandwriteanargumentativepaper.Seetoitthatyourthemeisdebatable,orelsetheessaywillfailcompletely.Providesufficient,well-arrangedevidenceandpresentitinacomposedandfriendlytone.PartSixTheSummaryandBookReportⅠ.TheSummary    Asummaryisabriefrestatementoftheessentialthoughtofalongercomposition.Itreproducesthethemeoftheoriginalwithasfewwordsaspossible.Whenonewritesasummary,oneshouldnotinterpretorcomment.Allonehastodoistogivethegistoftheauthor'sexactandessentialmeaning.1.UsesofSummaryWriting(1)Summarywritingisaverygoodexerciseforimprovingreadingcomprehension.Somestudentsreadcarelessly,andgainonlyavagueideaofwhattheyhaveread.Summarywritingcanforcethemtotrytounderstandwhattheyread,fornoonecanwriteasummaryofanypassageunlesshehasgraspeditsmeaning.Sosummarizingisalsotraininginconcentrationofattention.Itrequiresonetoreadwiththemind,aswellaswiththeeye,onthepage.(2)Summarywritingisalsohelpfultocompositionwriting.Ittrainsonetoexpressone'sthoughtclearly,conciselyandeffectively.Itisanexcellentcorrectiveofvagueanddisorderlythinkingandlooseanddiffusewriting.Whenwritingasummary,onehastoworkwithinstrictlimits.Onemustexpressacertainmeaninginafixednumberofwords.Soitisimportanttochoosewordscarefully,tomakesentenceswithaneyetoaccuracyandbrevity,andtowritethesummaryinlogicalorder.(3)Summarywritinghaspracticaluses.Theabilitytograspquicklyandaccuratelywhatisread,orheard,andtoreproduceitinaclearandconcisewayisofgreatvaluetopeopleofmanyprofessions.Forscientists,businessmen,lawyers,andgovernmentofficialsthisabilityisnotonlyimportant,butnecessary.

1552.Procedure(1)Reading.A.Firstreadthepassagethroughcarefullytogetthegistofit.Ifreadingitonceisnotsufficienttogiveyouaclearunderstandingofit,readitoveragain.Themoreyoureadit,themorefamiliartoyouwillbeitssubject,andwhatissaidaboutthesubject.B.Giveatitletoyoursummary.Thinkofsomeword,phraseorshortsentencethatwillsumupbrieflythemainideaofthepassage.Sometimeswhatiscalledatopicsentencemaybeused.Thetopicsentencemaybefoundatthebeginningorattheendofthepassage.Tofindasuitabletitlewillhelpyoutodefinewhatexactlythesubject,ormaintheme,ofthepassageis.C.Youshouldnowbeinapositiontodecidewhatpartsofthepassageareessentialandwhatpartsarecomparativelyunimportantandcanbeomittedwithoutmuchloss.D.Jotdowninbriefnotesthemainpoints-thesubject,thetitle,andthedetailswhichyouconsideressentialorimportant.(2)Writing.A.Asummaryshouldusuallybeaboutone-thirdtoone-fourthaslongastheoriginalpassage.Socountthenumberofwordsinthepassageanddivideitbythree.Youmayusefewerwordsthanthenumberprescribed,butinnocasemayyouexceedthelimit.B.Thesummaryshouldbeallinyourownwords.Itmustnotbeapatchworkmadeupofphrasesandsentencesquotedfromtheoriginalpassage.C.Youshouldfollowthelogicalorderoftheoriginalpassage,ifpossible(anddesirable).Ideasandfactsneednotberearranged.D.Thesummaryshouldbeself-contained,thatis,itmustconveythemessageoftheoriginalfullyandclearly,sothatyourreaderneednoreferencetotheoriginaltounderstandwhatitsmainideasare.E.Summarywritingisanexerciseincompression.Inwritingasummary,youmay:-Omitthedetails.Onlytheimportantpointsshouldbeincludedinthesummary;allthedetailsthatexplainthemainpointscanbeleftout.-Reducetheexamples.Outoffiveorsixexamplesgivenintheoriginalpassageoneortwomaybechosenforthesummary；therestaretobeomitted.-Simplifythedescriptions.Ifinthepassagetherearetensentencesdescribingapersonoranobject,itwillbeenoughtokeeponeortwointhesummary.-Eliminateallrepetitions.Sometimesastatementisrepeatedforemphasis.Thisisnotnecessaryinasummary.Sometimesanideaisrepeatedindifferentwords.Suchaveiledrepetitionshouldalsobeavoided.-Compresswordysentencesandchangephrasestowords.Hereareafewexamples:    "Hiscourageinbattlemightwithoutexaggerationbecalledlion-like."Hewasverybraveinbattle.

156    "Theaccountthewitnessgaveoftheincidentmadeeveryonethathearditlaugh."Thewitness'sstorywasabsurd.    "Theyactedinamannerthatrenderedthemliabletoprosecution."Theyactedillegally.    "Johnfellintotheriverand,beforehelpcouldreachhim,hesank."Johnwasdrownedintheriver.    "Hewashardupformoneyandwasbeingpressedbyhiscreditor."Hewasinfinancialdifficulties.    Youmayalsomakephrasesdotheworkofclausesorsentences.Hereisanexample:    BeautifulmountainslikeMountTai,LushanMountain,andYellowMountain,werevisitedbyonlyafewpeopleinthepast.Today,betterwages,holidayswithpay,newhotelsonthosemountains,andbettertrainandbusservices,havebroughtthemwithinreachofmanywhoneverthoughtofvisitingthemtenyearsago.Thesetwosentencesmaybeabridgedinthisway:    BeautifulmountainslikeMountTai,oncevisitedbyonlyafewpeople,aretodayaccessibletomany,thankstobetterwages,paidholidays,newhotelsandbettercommunication.-Usegeneralwordsinsteadofspecificwords.Hereisanexample:ShebroughthomeseveralChineseandEnglishnovels,afewcopiesofTimeandNewsweek,andsometextbooks.Sheintendedtoreadallofthemduringthewintervacation.Thismaybeturnedinto:Shebroughthomealotofbooksandmagazinestoreadduringthevacation.-Usetheshortestpossibletransitions.Forexample,but,then,thus,yet,andfor,canbeusedinplaceoflongertransitionslikeatthesametime,ontheotherhand,etc.Oftenthesemi-coloncantaketheplaceofatransitionalwordorphrase.-Putthemainpointsofadialogueinindirectspeech.Thisisadvisablebecauseindirectspeechcanbemadeverybriefwhileitisdifficulttoabridgedialogues.Hereisanexample:    KatelookedatPauldisapprovingly:"Youusemuchtoomuchsaltonyourfood,Paul-it'snotatallgoodforyou!"Paulputdownhisknifeandfrowned:"Whyonearthnot!Ifyoudidn'thavesaltonyourfooditwouldtasteawful...likeeating

157cardboardorsand...justimaginebreadwithoutsaltinit,orpotatoesorpastacookedwithoutsalt!"Katewaspatient.Shedidn'twanttoquarrelwithPaul.Shewantedtopersuadehim.Shesaidfirmly:"Buttoomuchsaltisbadforyou.Itcauseshighbloodpressureandlateron,heart-attacks.Italsodisguisesthetastesoffood,therealtastes,whicharemuchmoresubtlethansalt,andwhichwehavelostthesensitivitytoappreciateanymore."Thismayberewritteninto:KatesuggestedtoPaulthatheshouldeatlesssalt.ShethoughtthateatingtoomuchsaltwoulddoharmtoPaul'shealthandthatitcouldreducetherealtastesoffood.ButPauldisagreed.Hesaidthatfoodwithoutsaltwouldbetasteless.(3)Revision.    Reviseyourdraft.Campareitcarefullywiththeoriginaltoseethatyouhaveincludedalltheimportantpoints.Ifitistoolong,furthercompressitbyomittingunnecessarywordsandphrasesorbyremodellingsentences.Correctallmistakesinspelling,grammarandidiom,andseethatitisproperlypunctuated.Makethelanguagesimpleanddirect.Readthefollowingexamplesandtrytofindoutthemethodsusedinthem.AOriginal    Athirdkindofthinkingisstimulatedwhenanyonequestionsourbeliefsandopinions.Wesometimesfindourselveschangingourmindswithoutanyresistanceorheavyemotion,butifwearetoldthatwearewrongweresenttheimputationandhardenourhearts.Weareincrediblyheedlessintheformationofourbeliefs,butfindourselvesfilledwithanillicitpassionforthemwhenanyoneproposestorobusoftheircompanionship.Itisobviouslynottheideasthemselvesthataredeartous,butourself-esteem,whichisthreatened.Wearebynaturestubbornlypledgedtodefendourownfromattack,whetheritbeourperson,ourfamily,ourproperty,orouropinion.Wemaysurrender,butrarelyconfessourselvesvanquished.Intheintellectualworldatleast,peaceiswithoutvictory.    Fewofustakethepainstostudytheoriginofourcherishedconvictions;indeed,wehaveanaturalrepugnancetosodoing.Weliketocontinuetobelievewhatwehavebeenaccustomedtoacceptastrue,andtheresentmentarousedwhendoubtiscastuponanyofourassumptionsleadsustoseekeverymannerofexcuseforclingingtothem.Theresultisthatmostofourso-calledreasoningconsistsinfindingargumentsforgoingonbelievingaswealreadydo.(229words)-JamesHarveyRobinson

158Summary    Athirdkindofthinkingoccurswhenwearetoldthatourbeliefsandopinionsarewrong.Wemayhavebeenheedlessintheirformation,butourself-esteemwillnotpermitustochange.Wemayhavetogiveup,butwearenotconvinced.Wedonotstudytheoriginofourbeliefs;webelieveaswehavebeenaccustomedtobelieve,andweseekargumentsforcontinuingtobelieveaswealreadydo.(75words)BOriginal    XiaoLiuisasanitationworkerinarestaurant,amuchhonoredone.Shehasbeenawardedforher"excellentworkandsatisfactoryservice"bytheNationalTourismAdministrationfourtimessinceshetookthejobsixyearsago.    Herjobseemssimple.Everymorning,sheisrequiredtocleantwowashrooms,twobathrooms,twolockerrooms,thebalconyandthecorridor.Butitishardanddemandingwork,especiallyforagirlwhosuffersfromheartdisease."Iusuallyhavetocomeat8:30-halfanhourbeforetheworkingtimebegins,andstarttobustleinandoutwithoutabreak,"saysLiu.At11o'clock-theopeningtimeoftherestaurant,everythingiswashedup.Soisshe.Thenshestandsinfrontofthewashroomstogreeteveryguestwithasmile,helpthemanddothecleaningwheneveritisnecessary.    "Itisunusualworkforsuchayoungwoman,"saysthemanageroftherestaurant."Itisnotonlythehardworkbutalsothepsychologicalpressurethatshehastostand."    "IfeltveryashamedandhumblewhenIstoodinfrontofthewashroomonmyfirstworkingday,"recallsLiu.Thenonly17yearsoldsheblushedwheneveraguestcame.Hercolleaguespokedfunatherandherfriendscalledherafool.    "Becauseofmywork,theythinkIaminferiorandcanonlyworkinthewashrooms.ButIamnot,"shesays.Andtheyoungwoman,whohadbeeneagertodoeverythingwellsinceshewasachild,vowedtoproveit.    Fouryearsago,shewashonoredasExcellentSanitationWorkerbytheNationalTourismAdministration.Itwasthehappiestdayofherlife."Standingonthestage,Icried,becauseitisnotonlyaprize,butakindofunderstandingandrecognition,"Liusays.    Inspiteoftheheavyworkduringthedaytime,Liuspendseverynightlearningfromhersister'stextbooks."SometimesIreadtill3o'clockinthemorningandgetupat6togotowork,"shesays.Twoyearsago,shepassedtheentranceexaminationforthe"WorkerCollege",andthisyear,sheobtainedadiplomainfinance.Herthesiswasselectedforexcellenceandwashonoredatthecommencement.    (380words)-ZhangXiaohong

159Summary    XiaoLiuisamodelworkerdoingclean-upworkinarestaurant.Herdailychoresincludecleaningthewashroomsandbathrooms.Whenshefirststartedattheageof17,shefeltashamedofit,andpeoplelaughedather.Buttheyoungwomanhasovercomealldifficultiesandexcelledinherwork.Forthis,shewonanaward.Shealsostudiedhardatnight,sometimeswellintothesmallhours.Intheendshegraduatedfromthe"WorkerCollege"withgoodresults.(83words)    Forthesummaryofanoveloraplay,anoutlineoftheplotissufficient.Thesummarymaybeonlyone-hundredthorevenone-thousandthofthelengthoftheoriginalbook.Usually,itiswritteninthepresenttense.ThefollowingisabriefsummaryoftheclassicnovelCamillebyAlexandreDumas,Fils.    Mr.ArmandDuvalisstruckonedaybythesightofatall,slenderblack-hairedwomansteppingfromhercarriageintoashop,attiredinwhiteandcarryingabouquetofherfavoritecamellias.SheisMissMargueriteGauthier,anotoriouscourtesaninParis.TheyounghandsomeFrenchmanseesherforbutaninstant,butherbeautyburnsitselfonhisbrainforeverandhemakeseveryefforttowardgainingheracquaintance.Finallyhecatchessightofherinatheaterboxoneeveningandisabletosecureanintroduction.Armand'spassiondoesnotabate.Hefollowsandworshipsfromadistancethisbeautifulcreature;whenMargueriteisill-sheisdangerouslyconsumptive-heinquiresdailyforheratherhome.Oneday,afriendofArmand'stakeshimtoseeMarguerite.Duringthegaietyandwinethatfollowsshesuffersagainfromoneofherconsumptiveattacks.TherestofthecompanyignorestheepisodebutArmandbegsthefrailwomantotakebettercareofherself.Strangelymovedbyhissincerity,Margueriterespondstohislovebyagreeingtobehismistrees.ButtheelderDuvallearnsofhisson'sliaison;hecommandshimtobreakitoffbutArmandrefuses.ThefatherthenpleadstoMargueritetoleavehissonsoasnottoruinhisfuture.Sheloveshimsomuchthatshefinallyagrees.HerdeparturewithoutanexplanationinfuriatesArmandwhothenleavesthecountry.ItisatAlexandriathathelearnsthatMargueriteisillandthatherdyingthoughtsareofhim.HestartsatonceforParisbutitisalreadytoolate.SheleavesadiaryforArmandinwhichsheexplainsthetruth.Shediesinachurch,comfortedbyherpenitenceandthememoryofhavingtrulyloved.-AfterRolandA.GoodmanqtⅡ.TheBookReport    Bookreportsmayberequiredbyteacherswhowanttoknowwhethertheirstudentshavereadthebooksassignedandhowwelltheyunderstandthosebooks.Iftheyarenotrequired,studentsmayaswellwriteoneortwoforthemselves,for

160writingbookreportshelpsstudentstoimprovetheirreadingcomprehensionandtheirabilitytoanalyzeandevaluatebooks.Moreover,itisverygoodwrittenpractice.    Generallyspeaking,abookreportconsistsofthefollowingthreemainparts:informationabouttheauthorandhistimes,asummaryofthebook,andcommentsonit.    Abriefaccountoftheauthor'slifeshouldbegiventogetherwithadescriptionofhistimes.Thelattershouldincludethecircumstancesthatledtothewritingofthebookunderdiscussionandthehistoricalandsocialbackgroundrelatedtothecontentofthebook.Tomakethesethingsclear,thewriterperhapsneedstoreadsomereferencematerial,suchasbiographiesoftheauthorandhistoriesoftheperioddescribedinthebook.    Ashasbeenmentionedintheprevioussection,asummaryshouldbeself-contained,clear,andeasytounderstand.Aboveall,itshouldbeobjective.Commentsonandcriticismsofthebookshouldnotbemixedwiththesummary;theycanbelefttothethirdpart.Thesummaryofanoveloraplayisusuallywritteninthepresenttense,whilethatofnonfiction,inthetenseoftheoriginalwork:forexample,thepasttenseshouldbeusedforahistory,andthepresentforascientificwork.    Commentsonandevaluationofthebookformthethirdandmostimportantpartofabookreport.Inthispartthewriterexpresseshisorherownviewsonthebook,namesitsmeritsanddemerits,anddiscussesitsrelevancetothepresenttime.Thediscussionshouldofcoursecenteronthecontentofthebook,buttheauthor'sstyleandtechniquesofpresentation,ifinteresting,canalsobetouchedupon.Herearetwosamplebookreports.ATheBrokenWingsTheBrokenWingsisanovelbyGibran,Kahlil,publishedinNewYorkbyCitadelPressin1957.    Thestoryissetinthe20thcenturyinLebanon,particularlyBeirutandvicinity.KahlilGibranwritesthisnovelinthefirstperson.Infact,Gibranhimselfisthemajorcharacterofthenovelandtellsthestory.    ItisasadstoryofthebrokenloveaffairofGibranandSelmaKaramy.Gibranmeetshisfather'soldfriend,FarrisEffandiKaramy,whotreatshimasason,andthroughFarrismeetshisdaughter,thebeautifulandintelligentSelma.GibranandSelmafallinloveatfirstsight,buttheirlifetogetherisdestroyedwhenFarrisagrees,becauseoftheBishop'spower,onamarriagebetweenSelmaandtheBishop'snephew,thewickedandcorruptMonsourBeyGalib,whohashismindfixedonSelma'smoney.Adutifuldaughter,Selmaobeys.Butafterhermarriage,sheleadsanunhappyandunfulfilledlife.ShecontinuestomeetGibransecretlyinanearbytemple.LatershebearsMonsour'schild,butitdiessoonafterbirth.Broken-hearted,Selmadiesshortlyafterwards.Gibranisleftbehind,sufferingandmourning.    ThebasicconflictofthenovelarisesoutofanarrangedmarriagebetweenSelmaandtheBishop'snephew,whichseparatesSelmaandGibranfromtheloveandlife

161theymighthavehadtogether.Thenovelisthascreatedabeautifulbutsadstoryofliveandlostloveinanatmosphereofsorrowanddespair.ThereadereasilyunderstandstheplightofSelmaandGibran;asaresult,itisalmostnaturalforthereadertodisliketheBishopandhisnephewandsidewithSelmaandGibran,andatthesametime,tohatethearrangedmarriagebasedonpowerandmoney,whichisalsoanimportantthemeofthestory.-AfterVictorC.PellegrinoBAroundtheWorldinEightyDaysbyJulesVerne    JulesVerne(1828-1905),theauthorofAroundtheWorldinEightyDays,wasborninNantes,France.Hehadaninnatelovefortheseaandfortravelandadventurewhenhewasachild.Later,hedevotedhimselftoliteratureandwroteseveralscientificromances,whichgainedhimthename-FatherofModernScienceFiction.    Verne'snovelsareusuallyfullofscientificfactsanddetailsandtheypleasedthepublicfascinatedbyallthescientificdevelopmentsofthenineteenthcentury.Theyforetellwithuncannyaccuracytheinventionsandadvancedtechnologyofthetwentiethcentury,andhavebecometheliterarystepping-stoneforgenerationsofsciencefictionwriters.Verne'sstoryFiveWeeksinaBalloon(1863)broughthimhisfirstsuccess.Thefollowingyear,hepublishedJourneytotheCenteroftheEarth,whichalsomadeagreathit.Afterthat,AtriptotheMoon(1865),20,000LeaguesUndertheSea(1870),andTheMysteriousIsland,(1875),wereturnedoutoneafteranotherandtheybroughtVerneworldwidepopularity.    Verne'sheroesarealwaysthosewhorisktheirlivesforscientificresearchandprogress,andtheyhaveagreatinfluenceonthereaders.Forthefirsttime,peoplebegantobelievethatjourneysintospaceorundertheseamightreallybepossible.Manyeventriedtobringthatdaynearerbytheirownefforts.JulesVerneinspiredawholegenerationofscientistsandheprobablytravelledmorewidelyinhisimaginationthananyotherwriter.ThiswecanseequiteclearlyinAroundtheWorldinEightyDays(1873).    ThisisabookofsciencefictionwhichtellsusanexcitingstoryaboutanEnglishgentleman,Mr.PhileasFogg,whomakesabetwithhisclub-matesandmanagestotravelaroundtheworldineightydays.Itgivesusavividdescriptionofthemanydifficultiesandincidentswhichhappenonhisjourney.Mr.FoggandhisservantPassepartoutstarttheirjourneyfromLondonandtraveleastward.MrFox,adetective,whoisinvestigatingabankrobberycase,suspectsMr.Foggofbeingtherobberandfollowshimallthroughthejourneyinanattempttoarresthimassoonashegetsthewarrant.SoMr.Fogg,amanwithcourageandintelligence,triestodealwithallthetroublescausedbyMr.Fox,andinthemeantime,managestoovercomethedifficultiesonhisway,suchasmissingatrainorasteamboat,beingcaughtinastormonthesea,attacksbytheIndians,etc.Withthehelpofhisservant,Mr.Fogg

162savesanIndianwomanAouda,whowouldotherwisebecomeavictimofthe"Suttee".ThestoryendshappilywithMr.FoggwinningthebetandhismarriagewithAouda.    Fromthisstory,wecanseetheauthor'sdeeploveforthesea,travelandadventure,whichplayedanimportantroleinhislife.Wearealsoastonishedandconvincedbyhisfertileimaginationandscientificandgeographicalknowledge.    Thestoryissowell-knitandfascinatingthatthereadercannotputdownthebookbeforehefinishesreadingit.Thoughthebookisfullofscientificfactsanddetails,thereaderdoesnotfeelboredorconfusedatall,forinitprofoundtruthsareexplainedinsimplelanguagewithaccuracyandclarity.Byreadinghisnovels,thereadercanbothenjoyhimselfandobtainknowledge.Andthatiswhy,perhaps,thatVerne'snovelshavewongreatpopularityallovertheworldeversincetheywerepublished.-Student1.Readthefollowingpassagescarefully,andwriteasummaryofeachofthem.1    Some300kilometrestotheeastliesJiayuguan,nowacityof120,000people,37,000ofwhomworkinthemassiveJiuquanIronandSteelComplex.Untilsome30orsoyearsagotherewasnothingherebuttheGobidesert.    Whenprospectorscamelookingformineralresourcesunderthesurfaceofthedesert,conditionsweresoatrociousthat11losttheirlives.Amemorialtothemnowstandsinthemiddleofthecitythathasbeenbuiltbesidethemassiveworks,whichwerefoundedthereafterthediscoveryofrichdepositsoforeandcoal.    Thatplantwasnamedafterwhatwasthenthenearesttown,Jiuquan,some25kilometerstotheeast.    Itisnotquitetruetosaythattherewasnothinghere;sincethe14thcentury,inMingtimes,therehasbeenagreatfort,setmidwaybetweenthesnow-toppedQilianMountainstothesouthandtheBlackHillstothenorth,guardingthe15-kilometre-wideJiayuguanPassandputtingafullstoptotheGreatWall.    Thiswasaneight-yearpostingfortheancientsoldiers,apointpoignantlymadebyalargesoundingstoneinonecornerofthefort.Strikingitwithalittlestoneproducesanoiselikethechirpingofaswallow.Dependinguponthenote,thesoldiersbelievedtheycouldtellifallwaswellathome.Icouldnothelpreflectingonthefeelingsofthemanwhosestonestruckthewrongnote.    Itisthebest-preservedofalltheGreatWallfortsandwasbuiltonthesiteofmuchearlierfortificationsbecauseitwasthegatewayintoChinafromthewest.Thewallrunsnorthandsouthofthefort,anchoredbyaguardtowerinthefoothillsoftheQilianstothesouthandtheBlackHillstothenorth.Theclimbtothenortherntowerisrewardedwithaspectacularviewofthestonydesertthatseemstostretchawayforever-exceptwherethenewcityanditssteelworksstand.2

163    CharlesDickenswasbornatPortseaon7February1812andchristenedCharlesJohnHuffham.Whenhewaseleven,hisfatherwasimprisonedfordebt.Astherewasnowhereelseforthemtogo,hismotherandsevenbrothersandsistersjoinedtheirfatherinprison.Charleswaslucky.Akindlyrelativefoundhimworklabellingbottlesinafactory.    Itishardforustoimaginehowtheyoungboymusthavefeltabouttheseevents.Itisperhapsdifficulttounderstandthesocialsignificanceattachedtosuchthingsinthosedays.ForCharles,itwastotalshame,andtherewashislowlymenialjobtoaddtothis.Theexperienceofthesemonthsmusthavehauntedhimallhislife.JohnForster,hisclosestfriendandbiographer,tellsusthathenevertoldanyoneelseaboutit,excepthiswife.    Thisexperiencemighthelptoexplainthenaggingemotionalinsecurityandrestlessnesswhichfriendsperceivedbehindthemagnetizingeyes,thevivaciouspersonalityand,later,theextremelysuccessfulauthor.ItmightalsogosomewaytoexplainingDickens'sburningsympathyforthepoorandsociallyoppressed,whichisoneofthehallmarksofhiswork.    Whenhewasfifteen,Charlesbeganworkinalawyer'sofficeinLondon.Hemusthavefoundthenatureoftheworkslowandtediousfor,onlyeighteenmonthslater,hebecameafreelancereporterofparliamentarydebates.Hisfirstpublication,SketchesbyBoz,begantoappearinmagazineswhenhewasstillonlytwenty-one.    "Therest",astheysay,"ishistory".ThePickwickPaperswaspublishedinserialform,likeallofhisnovels,over1836and1837.OliverTwistalsoappearedin1837.ThesewerefollowedbyNicholasNicklebyinthenexttwoyearsandTheOldCuriosityShopinthetwoyearsafterthat.Allwereenormoussuccesses.    Hewroteanothertennovelsoverthefollowingtwenty-fouryears,themostfamousofwhichareAChristmasCarol(1843),DavidCopperfield(1849-50),andGreatExpectations(1860-61).Inadditiontothishecontinuedtobeactiveinjournalism.Duringthe1850shecontributedregularweeklyarticlestovariouspublicationsandwasinvolvedwiththesettingupandeditingofanumberofhisown.    WhatisnostimpressiveaboutDickensishisastonishing,apparentlylimitlessenergy.Whenhewasnotwritinghewaseithertravelling(intheearly1840shewenttoAmerica,Italy,SwitzerlandandFrance),takingpartinamateurtheatricalsbothasactorandproducer,or,from1858,givingseriesafterseriesofreadingsfromhisownworks.InadditiontothishebecamethefatheroftenchildrenfromhismarriagetoCatherineHogarthin1836.    Hemusthavebeenatiring,ifentertaining,companion.LionelTrillingwrotethat"themererecordofhisconvivialityisexhausting."Hisbiographerssuggesthewasdedicatedtogames,funandalmostanykindofcelebrationwithanalmostchildishintensity.Oneofhisfavouritepastimeswastakingaverylongwalkathighspeed.Heissaidtohavecovered,onfoot,everystreetineverycornerofLondon.    In1866hetravelledtoAmericaforthesecondtimeforaseriesofpublicperformances.Itisnotsurprisingthatbythistimehishealthwasbeginningtofail.Friendstriedtopersuadehimtoslowdown,but,perhapsoutofafeelingofdutytohispublic,perhapssimplybecauseofhistemperament,herefusedtodothis.On8June

1641870hesufferedastrokeafterafullday'sworkanddiedthefollowingday.Sopopularhadhebecomethatinatleastoneforeigncountry,Italy,hisdeathmadefrontpageheadlines.-JamesO'Driscoll3...    Iftheseaspectsoflifeincitiesaretheanswertowhysomuchmoreviolenceexiststherethanelsewhere,thesituationmightseemtobehopeless,fortheyareaspectsoflifewhichareabsolutelybasictocitiesasweknowthem.Whereverthereisurbanlife,therewillbeviolence.Movingpeopleoutofoldcitiesandputtingtheminnewonesdoesnothingtochangethesituation.ThenewtownofMiltonKeynes,aboutfiftymilesnorthofLondon,isanexample.Itwasbuiltmoreorlessasaunity,butgreatcarewastakentomakesurethatthebuildingsblendedwiththenaturalscenery,thatallthefacilitieswhichpeoplecouldwantwerecloseathand,andtosavethepeoplethedangerandunpleasantnessoftrafficoutsidetheirfrontdoors.AndyetMiltonKeyneshasoneofthehighestincidencesofassaultandvandalisminBritain.    Whythisshouldbesoisnothardtounderstand.Theplannersdidnothingtodisturbtheurbanpatternofspecializationandimpersonalityleadingtofrustrationwhichhasbeenidentified.Indeed,thefeelingoflackofcontrolisprobablygreaterinMiltonKeynesthanelsewherepreciselybecauseitwasplannedinsuchdetail,byfacelessarchitectsandbureaucrats,andonaverylargescale.    Theonlywaywecanescapefromthisviciouscircleisifwecancreatecircumstanceswherepeoplefeelmoreincontroloftheirdestiniesandfreertoorganizetheirlivesandsurroundings.Theappearanceofcommunesisanattempttocreatethesecircumstances.Sofar,ofcourse,theyhavehadnoeffectontheamountofviolenceincities.Thereareveryfewofthemandunderstandablytheyarebasedinthecountry.    Theyare,however,astepintherightdirectionintwoimportantways.First,theyareorganizedonasmallscale,andsecondlytheyareorganizedbyindividulsratherthananofficialorganization.Bothofthesefeaturesarevitalifwewanttoavoidslippingbackintothenegativeaspectsofcitylifediscussedabove.    Allthatcanbedonebygovernmentsistonudgepeoplegentlyintherightdirectionbytakingeveryopportunitytofosterasenseofcommunity.Ifnotmanyopportunitiesexist,itisallthemoreimportantthatthosethatdoexistaretaken.Oneofthoseistoensurethatallpublicservicesareorganizedonthesmallestscalepossible.Anotheristoensurethatthoseguiltyofviolentbehaviourarenotfurtheralienatedbyharshpunishmentsbutencouragedtoseethemselvesaspartofthecommunity.Whereverplanningofanykindisreallynecessary,architectureisall-importantindeterminingwhetheracommunityspiritwillexist.Evidencethatimprovementsarepossiblecomesfromtheestablishmentofanumberofneighborhoodcouncilsininnercityareasandfromtheirsuccessfulachievements.    Thesignificantpointaboutthesecouncilsisthattheyweresetupbyvoluntary

165action.Itshouldbeobviousfromtheprecedingargumentthatdirectactionbythestatecandolittletoturnthetideofviolence,andindeedsometimesmakesitworse.Theproblemofviolencecanonlybesolvedbyus.Itisworthcommentingthatourimmediateassumptionthatacommunityproblemissomethingthathastobesolvedbyagovernment,ratherthanbythemembersofthecommunitythemselves,isresponsibleforthefeelingsofalienationthatleadtoviolenceinthefirstplace.    Thesuggestionsmadeaboveforsolvingtheproblemofurbanviolenceareobviouslynotveryspectacular.Bytheirnaturetheycannotbeimplementedovernight,sincetheyimplyvoluntaryactiononthepartofindividuals.Nor,whenandiftheseimprovementsareeffected,canadramaticdecreaseintheamountofviolencebeexpected.Thisisbecause,aswassuggestedbythecomparisonofLondonandAthens,urbanviolenceresultsfromamentalattitudegraduallyinducedbycircumstances,andnotdirectlyfromthecircumstances.Itfollowsthat,ifthecircumstancesarechanged,thementalattitudeofviolencewillonlygraduallydisappear.-JamesO'DriscollⅡ.Writebookreportsonbookswhichyouthinkaremeaningfulandwellwritten.PartSevenFormalandInformalStylesⅠ.TheMeaningofStyle    Alltypesofwriting,likestories,legaldocumentsandpersonalletters,havemuchincommon:theycontainmanyofthecommonwordsusedbypeopleeverywhereandeveryday,observethesamebasicmorphologicalandsyntacticalrules,andfollowthesamecustomofusingpunctuationmarks.Inotherwords,nowriting,orspeech,forthatmatter,canbedonewithoutusingthecommoncoreoftheEnglishlanguage.    However,therearealsodifferencesbetweendifferenttypesofwriting.Inapersonalletter,forinstance,sentencesareusuallyshortandsimple,evenincomplete,andmostwordsarethoseusedindailyconversation,easyandevenslangy.Inalegaldocument,ontheotherhand,mostsentencesarelongandinvolved,andmany,ifnotmost,ofthewordsarepolysyllabic,withspecialtermsdifficultforordinarypeopletounderstand.    Specialfeaturesliketheseinlanguageareamatterofstyle.Thewordstylehasseveralsenses:itmayrefertoawriter'shabitualorpeculiarwayofusinglanguage,ortheprevalentfeaturesofthelanguageofacertainperiod,orthecharacteristicaspectsofthelanguageofacertaintypeofwriting.Itmayalsomeangraceoreleganceinwriting,asin"Hehasnostyle."Ⅱ.FormalandInformalStyles

166    Inthispartweshallonlydiscussonefundamentalaspectofstyle-differencesbetweenformalandinformal,orliteraryandcolloquial,English.Thepurposeistohelpstudentsacquireanabilitytorecognizeanddistinguishbetweenthesetwostyles,sothattheycanavoidusingformalEnglishwhereinformalEnglishisappropriate,ortheotherwayround.    Readthefollowingpassageandtrytofindoutwhatstylisticfeaturesithas.    Futureshock-thediseaseofchange-canbeprevented.Butitwilltakedrasticsocial,evenpoliticalaction.Nomatterhowindividualstrytopacetheirlives,nomatterwhatpsychiccrutchesweofferthem,nomatterhowwealtereducation,thesocietyasawholewillstillbecaughtonarunawaytreadmilluntilwecapturecontroloftheaccelerativethrustitself.    Thehighvelocityofchangecanbetracedtomanyfactors.Populationgrowth,urbanization,theshiftingproportionsofyoungandold-allplaytheirpart.Yettechnologicaladvanceisclearlyacriticalnodeinthenetworkofcauses;indeed,itmaybethenodethatactivatestheentirenet.Onepowerfulstrategyinthebattletopreventmassfutureshock,therefore,involvestheconsciousregulationoftechnologicaladvance.-AlvinToffler    Youmayhavenoticedthatinthispassagethereareafewlongsentences,thelongestone(thethirdofthefirstparagraph)havingmorethan40words.Thereareparallelconstructions(threeclausesbeginningwith"nomatter...",andthreenounphrasesusedasthesubjectsof"playtheirpart"),aparentheticalremark("thediseaseofchange"),andseveraldependentclauses.Thepassivevoiceisusedinthreeofthesevensentences.    Manyofthewordsandphraseshaveabstractmeanings,notoftenusedineverydayconversation,wordslikedrastic,individuals,psychic,alter,accelerative,velocity,urbanization,proportions,technological,activates,etc.Comparativelyspeaking,theyare"big"orlearnedwords.Phraseslike"pacetheirlives","capturecontrolof","thenetworkofcauses",and"consciousregulation"arenotconversationaleither.    Metaphorsareused:psychiccrutches,""caughtonarunawaytreadmill,""acriticalnode,"andsoon.Thesefeaturesshowthatthepassageisratherformalinstyle.Suchastylesuits,andisrequired,bythecontent,whichdealswithatheoreticalquestion.    Nowreadthenextpassageandseehowitisdifferentfromthepreviousoneinstyle.    Itwassixo'clockwhenIlefttheschoolhouse.Ihadsixmilestowalkhome.ItwouldbeaftersevenwhenIgothome.IhadallmyworktodowhenIgothome.IttookPaandmebothtodothework.Sevencowstomilk.Nineteenheadofcattletofeed,fourmules,twenty-fivehogs,firewoodandstovewoodtocut,andwatertodrawfromthewell.HewouldbedoingitwhenIgothome.Hewouldbemadandwonderingwhatwaskeeping

167me!    Ihurriedhome.Iwouldrununderthedark,leaflesstrees.Iwouldwalkfastuphill.Iwouldrundownthehill.Thegroundwasfreezing.Ihadtohurry.Ihadtorun.Ireachedthelongridgethatledtoourcowpasture.Iranalonghisridge.Thewinddriedthesweatonmyface.Iranacrossthepasturetothehouse.-JesseStuart    Thesetwoparagraphsdescribeateenageschoolboyhurryinghomelateintheeveningtohelphisfather,afarmer,todothehousework.Allthesentencesareshortandmostofthemaresimplesentences.Thereareonlyafewdependentclauses,whichareshortandsimple,too.Sentencefragmentsareused("Sevencowstomilk"and"Nineteenheadofcattletofeed...").Allthefiniteverbsareintheactivevoice.    Allthewordsarefamiliareverydaywords.Thereareno"big"words,noabstractwords,nodifficultphrases.Andtherearenorhetoricaldeviceslikemetaphorsorsimiles.    Inshort,thepassageiswritteninaveryinformalorcolloquialstyle.Thisstyleisappropriatebecausethepassagedescibeshowafarmer'ssonwalkedhomeandwhathethoughtofonhisway.Iflongandinvolvedsentencesand"big"anddifficultwordswereused,thedescriptionwouldbeunnaturalandunrealistic.Thenextpassageisevenmoreinformalthanthesecondone:    SquawksMagrewwasmanagin'theboysatthetime,andhewasdarnnearcrazy.Theycalledhim"Squawks"'causewhenthingswasgoin'badhelosthisvoice,orpertynearlostit,andsquealedatyoulikealittlegirlyousteppedonherdollorsomethin'.Heyelledateverybodyandwouldn'tlistentonobody,withoutmaybeitwasme.I'dbeentrainin'theboysfortenyear,andhe'dtakemorelipfrommethanfromanybodyelse.HeknowedIwassmarter'nhim,anyways,likeyou'regoin'tohear.-JamesThurber    ThewriterusessubstandardEnglishbecausethestoryissupposedtobetoldbyabaseballplayerwhohashadlittleschooling.Thereareinitsentencesincorrectingrammar,wordsincorrectinform,slangexpressions,andwordswithlettersdroppedtoreflectthespeaker'spronunciation.Suchastyleisappropriateforastorylikethisbecauseitmakesthestorysoundtrue.ForeignstudentsofEnglish,however,hardlyhaveanyopportunitytowriteinthisway.    Thereareallkindsofstyles:personalandimpersonal,simpleandelaborate,directandindirect,concreteandabstract,andsoon.Thosewhoareinterestedinthestudyofstylewillcertainlylearnmuchbyreadingworksonstylistics,buteverystudentlearningtowriteinEnglishshouldatleasthavesomebasicknowledgeofthecharacteristicsofformalandinformalEnglish.    ThefollowingaresomespecificfeaturesthatdistinguishthesetwotypesofEnglish:

1681.Contractionslikedon't,mustn't,he's,I've,etc.,aregenerallyusedininformalwriting.Informalwritingthefullformsarepreferred:donot,mustnot,etc.    2.ForindefinitereferenceyouisoftenusedininformalEnglishwhileoneisoftenusedinformalEnglish,as:    YouneverknowwhatnewmeasuresthePresidentwilltake.OneneverknowswhatnewmeasuresthePresidentwilltake.3.IninformalEnglishwhocanbeusedinsteadofwhomasanobjectinquestions,e.g.Who(Whom)didyouseeinthatroom?Whoisthesecretarytalkingwith?Withwhomisthesecretarytalking?(Formal)4.IninformalEnglishthatcanoftenbeleftoutbeforeanobjectclause,especiallyafterverbsofsayingorthinking,e.g.Shesaid(that)shewouldcome.Hetoldme(that)helikedthehouse.Ithink(that)it'sagoodidea.5.Ininformalstyletheyisoftenusedasapronounreferringtoeveryone,everybody,someone,somebody,anyone,anybody,noone,nobody,e.g.Haseveryonefinisheddoingtheirexercises?Haseveryonefinisheddoinghisorherexercises?(Formal)Anyonecantakeabrochureiftheywantit.Anyonecantakeabrochureifheorshewantsit.(Formal)6.WhenthesubjectisIorhe(she,it),wascanbeusedinsteadofwereinthesubjunctivemoodininformalstyle:Theoldladytreatedhimasifhewasherownson.Iwishhewasherewithus.7.Participialphrasesaregenerallyusedinformalstyle:Havingbeenwarnedoftheimpendingstorm,thecaptaindecidedtoputoffthevoyage.Whenthecaptainheardastormwascoming,hedecidedtoputoffthevoyage.(Lessformal)Badlydefeatedinthematch,theteamreturnedinlowspirits.Theteamwasbadlydefeatedinthematch,andtheyreturnedinlowspirits.(Lessformal)Shedecidedtogohomeatonce,knowingthathermotherwasanxiouslywaitingfor

169her.Shedecidedtogohomeatonce.Sheknewhermotherwasanxiouslywaitingforher.(Lessformal)8.Nominativeabsoluteconstructionsaregenerallyusedinformalstyle:Theweatherbeingfine,alargenumberofpeoplewenttoclimbtheWesternHills.Astheweatherwasfine,alargenumberofpeoplewenttoclimbtheWesternHills.(Lessformal)Africaisthesecondlargestcontinent,itssizebeingaboutthreetimesthatofChina.Africaisthesecondlargestcontinent.ItisaboutthreetimesaslargeasChina.(Lessformal)9.Adjectivalandadverbialphrasesplacedbeforethesubjectoftenmakethesentenceformal:Afamousprofessorofbiology,Dr.Joneswasthenewpresidenttheuniversity.Eagertofinishthework,hecontinuedtodoituntilmidnight.10.Parentheticalremarksoftenmakeasentenceformal:Thisvillagehasbuilt,inlessthantenyears,severalsmallfactoriesthatbringinmoreincomethanthefarmproduceeveryyear.Heshavedveryslowlyandcarefully,aswashiscustom,infrontofthemirrorabovethesink.Allthepeoplepresent-ChairmanSmith,ProfessorsBrown,JamesandWilliams,andthesecretary-supportedthemotion.11.Aseriesofnouns,verbs,oradjectivesmaymakeasentencesoundformal:Hisangerpreventedhimfromdoing,saying,andlisteningtoanything.Shehasexperiencedloveandhate,griefandhappiness.12.AswediscussedinPartⅢ,thefollowingtypesofsentencesareoftenusedinformalstyle:Longsentences;Compound-complexsentences;Sentenceswithparallelconstructions;Balancedsentences;andPeriodicsentences.13.Asforvocabulary,everydaywordsaremainlyofAnglo-Saxonorigin,whilewordsofGreek,FrenchandLatinoriginsaremostlyformalorlearnedwords(seePartⅠforexamplesandexplanations).Itwouldbehelpful,whenyoulearnaformalword,

170torememberaninformalwordwiththesameornearlythesamemeaning,forexample:FormalInformalcommencebeginProfounddeepfortunateluckyterminateendproceedbeginorcontinueelevateraisegratuitousunneccessarywxplicitclearidenticalsameeruditelearnedendeavortryeccentricqueer,strange14.Phrasalverbsarecolloquialandoftenusedinconversationalstyle: PhrasalVerbsSingleVerbsgooncontinue(v.i.)carryoncontinue(v.t.)lookintoinvestigatecomeacrossmeetputupwithbear,enduregetawayleave,escapeturnoutproduceSomephrasalverbsmayhavemorethanonemeaningandmaybebothtransitiveandintransitive.15.Shortenedwordslikephoto,ad,bike,gym,prep,pop,andvetarecommonlyusedineverydayconversation.Theyarenotoftenusedinformalwriting.16.Slangwordsandexpressionsareoftentoocasualandinformaltobeusedinformalwriting.Manyslangwordshaveshortlivesandmaydisappearinafewyears;someofthemmaybecomeapartofthecolloquialvocabulary.Hereareafewexamples:SlangCommonlousybad,terrible

171swellgood,excellentmightyvery,extremelyneat,coolfine,pleasantinhotwaterintroublemakeahitsucceedindoingsomethingmakeabigdealaboutsomethingexaggeratetheseriousnessofsomethingshootthebreezespendtimechattingtalksomeone'sheadoffspeaktoomuchItisgoodtoknowsuchslangwordsandexpressionsbecausepeoplemayusetheminconversation,butforeignstudentshavetobecarefulaboutusingtheminspeechorwriting.TheabovearesomeofthecommondifferencesbetweenformalandinformalEnglish.However,customsofusinglanguageareflexibleandchangewiththetimes.Theyarenotabsoluteorstatic.Ifwecomparecontemporaryprosewiththatofthe19thcentury,wewillfindthatprosetodayisgenerallysimpler,easier,andlivelier.Colloquialismseemstobethegeneraltrend.Whilewepayattentiontothedifferencesbetweenvariousstyles,itisnecessaryforustokeepwatchonnewtendenciesinprosestyle.Readthefollowingpassagesanddiscusstheirstylisticfeatures:AAsAmericaentersthelastdecadeofthiscentury,issuesthatdevelopedasanoutgrowthofWorldWarⅡcontinuetodominateournationalagenda.Inforeignpolicyweneedtoworkoutstablerelationshipswithothersuperpowersaswellastocooperateeffectivelywithdevelopingnations.Theworldcannotaffordanuclearwar.Yetasthecapacitytomakenuclearweaponsproliferates,itbecomesmoreandmoredifficulttopreventthatpossibilityfrombecomingareality.    Withinourownsociety,majorproblemscontinueintheareasofraceandsexdiscrimination,economicproductivity,andmaldistributionofwealthandresources.ItisdifficultfortheUnitedStatestobeaplaceofequalopportunityunlesspeoplefromdifferentracesandbackgroundsbeginfromrelativelythesameplace.Yetthatcannothappenaslongasthetop5percentofthepopulationcontrolsnearly53percentofthewealth,andthebottom20percentofthepopulationhaslessthanhalfof1percentofthewealth.-WilliamH.ChafeandHarvardSitkoffB    DespitethediscouragementIhadreceived,Icontinuedtostudy.IkeptpursuingmyinterestinsciencepartlytoprovethatIcoulddoitandpartlybecauseIenjoyedit.However,thatenjoymenthaddecreasedverymuchduringmycollegeyears.The

172constantdiscouragementandpressuresthatIreceivedasawomanhadtheirresult.Ibecamelessinterestedandmyworksuffered.AlltheenergythatIhadputintofightingthesepressuresdistractedmefrommywork.EventuallyIbelievedthebelittling,andthequalityofmyworkwaslowered.HoweverImanagedtofinishschoolandthenattemptedtoapplymyskills.-DianeNarekC    IntheafternoonwhenwewenttobiologyPawasintheclass.Hewassittingononeofthehighstoolsbesidethemicroscope.WewentaheadwithourworkjustasifPawasn'tintheclass.IsawPatakehisknifeandscrapetartarfromoneofhisteeth.ProfessorHerbertputitonthelensandadjustedthemicroscopeforPa.Headjusteditandworkedawhile.Thenhesays,"NowLuster,look!Putyoureyerightdowntothelight.Squinttheothereye!"    PaputhisheaddownanddidasProfessorHerbertsaid."Iseeim,"saysPa."Who'daeverthoughtthat?Rightonabody'steeth!Rightinabody'smouth.You'rerightcertaintheyain'tnofaketothis.ProfessorHerbert?"    "No,Luster,"saysProfessorHerbert."It'sthere.That'sthegerm.Germsliveinaworldwecannotseewiththenakedeye.Wemustusethemicroscope.Therearemillionsoftheminourbodies.Someareharmful.Othersarehelpful."-JesseStuartD    TheproblemwithaccuratelydefiningthehazardsofmarijuanaisthatthewayinwhichitisusedbyAmericanshasnotyetbeensubjectedtolong-termstudy.Decadesofexperiencewithmarijuanainothercountriesisnotnecessarilyrelevanthere,whereastrongerformofthedrugisused,primarilybypeopleintheirformativeyears,andwherepatternsofinhalationarelikelytodiffer.    Itmaybe20yearsormorebeforethenecessarystudiescanbeconductedamongAmericans.Therefore,itisespeciallyimportanttoheed"earlywarningsigns"ofthelong-termhazardsofsmokingmarijuana.OneneedonlyrecallthatittookhalfacenturyofheavycigarettesmokingbymillionsofAmericansbeforethehealthrisksoftobaccowerewidelyrecognized.Bythen,somanyhadbecomesohookedonthe"innocuousweed"thattoday,25yearsafterthefirstmajorreportonthehealthhazardsofcigarettes,morethan50millionAmericansstillsmokecigarettesandsmokingremainsthenation'sleadingpreventablecauseofillnessandprematuredeath.-JaneE.BrodyPartEight

173TheResearchPaper    Aresearchpaper(sometimescalledalibrarypaperoratermpaperorathesis)isusuallyaformal,fairlylongandwell-documentedcompositionthatexplores,discusses,oranalyzesacertainfactualortheoreticalissue,anditshouldbecharacterizedbylucidandcoherentexposition.    Thepreparationofaresearchpapergivesyoupracticeincriticalreadingandweighingevidence,practicethatisvaluablenotonlyincollegecoursesbutinwhateveryoumaydooutsideandaftercollege.Itgivesyouanopportunitytolearnhowtouselibraries,providesexperienceintheuseofdocumentation,andfamiliarizesyouwiththenecessarymechanicsofwritingaresearchpaper.Italsogivesyouvaluablepracticeinwritinglongpapersorreports,whichmaybepartofyourfuturework.Finally,itgivesyouachancetolearnsomethingnewyourself.Youlearnmoreaboutasubjectandlearnitmorethoroughlyifyouhavetosiftevidence,organizevariouskindsofmaterial,explainittoothersanddefendyourselfbymeansofwrittenexposition.Itisalwayspleasanttodiscoverthatyouhavebecomesomewhatexpertonacertainsubjectaboutwhichyoupreviouslyknewlittle.Ⅰ.Process    Theprocessofwritingaresearchpaperisgenerallydividedintofivestepsorstages:(1)choosingatopic;(2)collectinginformation;(3)analyzingtheinformation,organizingideas,andworkingoutanoutline;(4)writingthefirstdraft;and,(5)revisingthedraftandfinalizingit.1.ChoosingaTopic    Allwritingbeginswithatopic.Sothisisthefirstimportantstepinthewritingofaresearchpaper.Aninappropriatedecisionaboutaresearchtopicmayleadtothefailureofthewholeresearchproject,oratleastawasteoftimeandenergy.Youmayfinditdifficulttomakeaquickdecisionaboutthetopic.Itisadvisabletogofromthegeneraltothespecificinthefollowingway:(1)Selectingageneraltopic    Itshouldbeatopicthatyouareinterestedinandknowsomethingabout.Itshouldbeoneaboutwhichyoualreadyhavesomeideas,andtheseideasareworthdevelopingintoaformalpaper.(2)Readingandthinking    Youshouldreadasmanybooksaspossibletoseeifyoucanfindsomeinformationyouneed.Askyourselfwhetherthetopicinyourmindhasalreadybeenexploredanddiscussedquitethoroughly,andwhetheryoucandevelopthetopic

174furtherbyofferingsomethingnew,different,ororiginal.Iftheanswersarepositive,youcanproceedtothenextstep;otherwise,dropthetopic.(3)Narrowingdownthescopeofyourtopictoafacetorfacetswhichcanbedevelopedintoaresearchpaper.    Supposeyouareinterestedininternationalrelations,especiallyinSino-Americanrelations.Eventhelatteristoobigatopictobedealtwithinapaper.Youhavetolimityourtopicappropriately.Afteryouhavereadacertainamountofmaterial,youmayfindthatrelationsbetweenthetwocountriesintheearlyyearsofthePeople'sRepublicareworthexploring.Soyourfinaldecisionmaybesomethinglike"Sino-AmericanRelations:1949-1956."(4)FormulatingthefinaltopicThefollowingpointsmayserveasasetofcriteriaforyourfinaltopic:1)Itshouldbeatopicthatismeaningfulandserious.Inotherwords,youshouldnotchooseatopicthatmayinitiallyseemtobeinterestingbutactuallyhaslittlesignificance.Asyouaredoingseriousacademicworkorscientificresearch,youmustshowdepthandinsightinyouranalysis.Aresearchpapermustmakepeoplethinkandlearn.2)Itshouldbeatopicwithintherangeofyourabilities.Nomatterhowfascinatedyoumaybebyastronomyornuclearphysicsorspaceflight,youwillnotbeabletowriteanythingsignificantonanyofthesesubjects,ifyoulackthenecessarytraining.3)Itshouldbeatopicforwhichsufficientmaterialsareavailable.Theviewsexpressedinaresearchpapershouldusuallybebasedonthestudyofavarietyofsources.Ifyoucanfindonlyoneortwobooksorarticlesrelatedtoyoursubject,andifyoudrawconclusionsonlyfromthem,itishighlyprobablethatyourconclusionswillnotbewell-founded.4)Itshouldbeatopicthatcanbetreatedobjectively.Mosttopicscanbesotreated,buttherearetopicswhichmayinvolvepersonallikesanddislikes.Forinstance,atopiclike"WhichWastheGreaterPoet,LiBaiorDuFu?"isnotsuitableforaresearchpaper,becauseyourconclusionsmaywellbesubjective.Butyoucantreatobjectivelyatopiclike"AcomparativeStudyoftheThemesinLiBai'sandDuFu'sPoems."5)Itshouldbeasubjectthatisnottootopicaltodrawconclusionson.Forinstance,itwouldbedifficulttowriteaconclusivepaperontheongoingconflictsintheMiddleEast.Ifthesubjectyouhavetentativelychosenistoobroadtobetreatedwithanydepthorthoroughness,youshouldtrytolimititsscopeandfindanappropriatefocusforyourdiscussion.Thisprocessisreallyoneofdiscoveringasubjectwithinasubject.Thefollowingexamplesshowhowtorestrictasubjectuntilapropertopicisarrivedat:

175A.General:TheAmericanCivilWarRestricted:CausesoftheVictoryoftheNorthMorerestricted:TheSupportGiventotheUnionArmybythePeopleThetopicchosen:BlackSoldiersintheUnionArmyB.General:ElizabethanDramaRestricted:Shakespeare'sTragediesMorerestricted:HamletThetopicchosen:OnHamlet'sInsanityOnefinalsuggestion:Donotbetooeagertosettleonanysingletopicimmediately.Ifyouhavetwoorthreepossibilitiesinmind,somuchthebetter.Theremaynotbeasmuchinformationavailableonyourfirstchoiceasyouhoped,anditisalwayscomfortingtohavesomethingreadytofallbackon.2.CollectingInformation    Onceyouhavedecidedonatopicforyourresearchpaper,thenextthingtodoistocollectrelevantinformation.Thisstepwillgothroughthewholeresearchprocess.Youshouldbegincollectingmaterialthemomentyoubeginyourresearchorthemomentyouhaveavaguetopicinyourmind,andyouhavetokeepondoingthisuntilthelastmomentofyourresearch-the"cutoff"point.(1)Usingthelibrary    Atthisstage,youhavetovisitthelibrarymanytimestofamiliarizeyourselfwiththelocationofthebooksrelevanttoyourresearch,andtoborrowandreadthem.    Ofthetensofthousandsofbooksinthelibrary,eachhasatitlecard,anauthorcardandoneormoresubjectcardsinthecardcataloguedrawers.Youcaneasilyfindthebooksyouneed,iftheyareavailable,accordingtothelastnamesoftheauthorsorthefirstwords(disregardingthebeginningA,AnorThe)ofthetitlesofbooks,whichareallarrangedalphabetically.Youcanalsogotothesubjectcataloguetofindoutwhathasbeenwrittenonyourtopic,oratleastfindsometitleswhichseemtoberelatedtoyourtopic.    ThesubjectcardsinmanylibrariesofourcountryaredividedintosometwentymajorcategoriessuchasPhilosophy,SocialSciencesandPolitics,Economy,Art,Literature,Language,History,Geography,etc.,andeachcategoryisrepresentedbyanalphabetletter.Forexample,ifyouwanttowriteapaperontheAmericanblacks,youmaylookupthesubjectcardsunderthecategoryofSocialSciencesandPolitics.Therethecardsaresubdividedintominorcategories,amongwhichmaybebooksabouttheracequestionsuchasForaRevolutionaryPositionontheNegroQuestion,TowardNegroFreedom,NegroLiberation,FromRaceRiottoSit-In,etc.    Anup-to-dateencyclopediamayalsogiveyousomehelp.Readallthearticlesonorrelatedtoyoursubjectinitandlookatthebriefbibliographiesprovidedattheendofeacharticle,andyouwillbeabletocollectanumberoftitles.ManylibrarieshavesuchbooksasWorldBibliographyofBibliographies,BibliographicalIndex,Reader's

176GuidetoPeriodicalLiterature,AGuidetoEnglishandAmericanLiterature,TheNewCambridgeBibliographyofEnglishLiterature,andBibliographicGuidetotheStudyoftheLiteraturetheU.S.A.,whicharealsohelpful.Ofcourse,ifyouarecompletelyatalossaboutwheretofindreferencematerials,youcanalwaysseekhelpfromthereferencelibrarian.Copyallthetitles,preferablyoncards.Whiledoingthis,youareinfactcompilingapreliminarybibliography,whichwillbeexpandedbynewtitlesdrawnfromthebibliographiesinthebooksyouaregoingtoread.Forbibliographyformsseepp.341-52(2)Reading    Most,ifnotall,oftheinformationorrawmaterialforyourpaperwillcomefrombooks,magazines,andnewspapers.Itfollowsthatthemainmethodofcollectinginformationisreading.    Whilereading,youshouldlearnhowtolocateandevaluateusefulinformationinaslittletimeaspossible.Youshouldlearntoreadbooksquicklyandcritically.Itisnotalways,andinfact,isseldom,necessarytoreadanarticlefrombeginningtoendorabookfromcovertocover.Lookatthetableofcontentsortheindexofabooktofindoutinwhatchaptersorpartsofityoucanhopetogetsomeusefulmaterial.Skimtheirrelevantpagesrapidlyuntilyougettotheinformationyouneed.Sometimesyoumayfinditawasteoftimetoreadawholebookbecauseyouhavegotnothingfromitthatisapplicabletoyourpaper.Donotbedisappointed;atleastyoucanconsoleyourselfwiththethoughtthatyounowknowthebookisnotusefultoyou.Itmayalsoturnouttobeusefullater,justbecauseyoudoknowwhatitcontains.    Ifyoufindsomethingusefulinabook,youhavetoconsideritsreliability.Yourmaterialwouldnotbevaluableifthesourcewasdoubtful.Soitisnecessarytoknowwhatcriticshavesaidaboutthebookanditsauthor.Trytofindthelatesteditionofthebook.Comparewhatissaidinitwithwhatotherbookssayonthesametopic.Youshouldmakesurethatyourinformationisnotoutdatedorbiased.(3)Takingnotes    Nobodyhassuchagoodmemorythatherememberseverythinghehasread,andnobodycanwriteagoodresearchpaperwithouttakinggoodnotes.    Itismoreconvenienttotakenotesoncardsthaninanotebook,forthesimplereasonthatyoucaneasilyshuffleorrearrangeyourcards,whileyoucannotchangetheorderofthepagesinyournotebookwithouttearingthemoffandturningthemintocards.Rulenumberone,then,istakeyournotesoncards,oronseparatepiecesofpaper.    Rulenumbertwoisplaceonlyonenoteonacard.Onenoteisonefact,oneidea,oneopinion.Ifyouputtwofactsorideasoropinionsononenotecard,oneofthemislikelytogetburiedorlostamongyouraccumulatednotes.Eitherthat,orasyouorganizeandreorganizeyournotes,youmayfindthatyouwillhavetorecopythatsecondfact,idea,oropinion,ortakethetimetocutnotesintosmallerunits-allvery

177inefficient.    Rulenumberthreeisbeselective.Donotwasteyourtimemakingnotesoffactsoropinionsoninformationyouandyourreadershouldalreadyknow.Itisnotnecessary,forexample,tonotethatGeorgeWashingtonwasthefirstpresidentoftheU.S.A.1)Contentofnotes    Whatdoyoulookforwhentakingnotes?Youshouldlookforanyfact,idea,oropinionnotgenerallyknownbutrelevanttoyourtopic.Youwill,ofcourse,takefarmorenotesthanyouneedforyourfinalpaper,butifyouplantodoagoodjobofresearch,youshouldinvestigateyoursubjectasthoroughlyasyoucanandwaituntillatertostartweedingoutnotesyoudonotactuallyneed.Itiseasiertotakeafewextranotesthanitistogobacktothelibraryandrereadabookorarticlewhenyoudiscover,afteryoustartwritingthepaper,thatyoudonothaveenoughevidencetomakeapoint.    Nevertheless,youshouldnotsimplytakenotesatrandom.Youhavebegunyourresearchwithatleastavagueideaofwhatyouwanttoproveorreport.Thesoonertheideabecomesdefinite,themoredirectedandlesstime-consumingyournote-takingwillbecome.Butdonotworryifyoufindyourselftakingmanynotesfromthefirstsourcesyouread.Afterall,thesubjectisfairlynewtoyou,andeverythingseemsimportant.Youshouldsoongetafocusonthematerial,andthenyoucanbecomemoreselectiveinthenotesyoutake.Limityoursubjectandyourapproachtoit,justassoonasyoucan,soyoucanperformthejobofnote-takingefficiently.2)Documentationofnotes    Everynotecardshouldcontaintwokindsofinformation:thefact,ideaoropinionandtheexactsourcefromwhichyougettheinformation.Sinceyouhavethecompletedataforthesourceonyourbibliographycard,youneedtogiveyourselfjustenoughinformationonthenotecardtoreferyoutotheproperbibliographicalreference.Usually,theauthor'slastnameandthepagenumberfromwhichyoutaketheinformationwillbesufficient.Occasionally,youwillhavetwoworksbythesameauthor.Inthatcase,usetheauthor'slastnameandanabbreviatedformofthework'stitletodistinguishonesourcefromanother.Ifnoauthorisgiven,useanabbreviationofthetitleofthebookorarticle.Donot,however,usesimplythenameofamagazine.Youcould,forexample,beusingseveralarticlesfromvariousissuesofTime.IfyousimplywriteTimeonyournotecard,youwillnothaveenoughinformationtoreferyoutothebibliographycardwhichliststheparticulararticlefromwhichyouaretakingnotes.3)Kindsofnotes    Basically,therearethreemajorkindsofnotes:thedirectquotation,theparaphrase,andthesummary.Thedirectquotationisanotethattakesdowntheexactwordingof

178aparticularlyeffectivestatementonasubject.Theparaphraseisanotethattakesdowntheinformationofasourceinyourownwords.Thesummaryisanotethatabstractsandcondensesalargeamountofmaterialintoasmallspace.Whichevermethodyouuse,youmustcitethesourceofinformation.4)Quotationofsources    Ifyoudoquoteyoursource,youmustbecertainthatyouputquotationmarksaroundthematerialyoutake.Itmaybeamonthormorebetweenthetimeyoutakethenoteandthetimeyouwriteyourpaper,andyoudonotwantanyuncertaintyaboutwhichwordsareyoursandwhicharethoseoftheoriginalauthor.Youmustalsobecertainthatyoucopythequotationexactlyasitappearsintheoriginal.Iftheoriginalhasanobviouserror,copytheerrorandfollowitinbracketswith[sic],theLatinwordfor"thus".Underlinesicwhenyoutypeorwritetheword.Inprint,thewordwouldbeitalicized.(Non-Englishwordsareusuallyunderlined.)    Occasionally,youmaywanttoquoteonlypartsofanentirepassage.Ifyouleaveoutawholeparagraphortwo,indicatetheomissionbyplacingspaceddotsallthewayacrossthecard.Ifyouleaveoutapartofasentenceoroneortwosentences,indicatetheomissionbyplacingthreespaceddots(anellipsis)wherethesentenceorpartofthesentencehasbeenleftout.Ifyouomitthebeginningofasentence,placethequotationmarksbeforetheellipsis.Ifyouomittheendofasentence,placethequotationmarksaftertheellipsisandtheendpunctuation(period,questionmark,orexclamationmark).    Awordortwoofcautionaboutusingtheellipsis:neveralterthemeaningoftheoriginalbyusinganellipsis.Iftheoriginalstatementreads,"Thiswasnotthemostimportantcauseofthewar,"usinganellipsistoomitthewordnotwouldbedishonest.Secondly,besurethatyoustillhaveacompletesentencewhenyouusetheellipsis.Donotomitfromthesentenceimportantelementssuchasthesubjectandtheverb.    Whenquoting,youwillsometimesfinditnecessarytoclarifyawordordateintheoriginalquotationbecauseyouaretakingthewordsoutofcontext.Pronouns,forexample,mayneedclarification.Incontext,"Hesufferedextremehardships"maybeperfectlyclear.Isolatedonanotecard,however,thepronounhemayneedtobeexplained.Ifyouwanttoinsertaword,phrase,orfigureintoquotation,dosobyputtingtheinformationinbrackets,notparentheses:"He[Marx]sufferedextremehardships."Ortheoriginalmightread,"Inthatyear,KarlMarxandFriedrichEngelspublishedtheCommunistManifesto."Thesentence,takenoutofcontext,doesnotidentifytheyear.Youwouldwanttoinsertit:"Inthatyear[1848],KarlMarxandFriedrichEngelspublishedtheCommunistManifesto."    Itisadvisabletoquotesparingly.Mostofyournotesshouldbeparaphrasesorsummariesoftheoriginalmaterial.Asasafeguardagainstthepossibilityofunwittingandunintendedplagiarism,markoneachnotecardanindicationofwhetheritisaparaphraseorasummary.Ofcourse,ifyouareinahurryanddonothavetimetothinkaboutthebestwaytoparaphraseanote,ratherthanriskplagiarsim,doquotethematerialandlaterdecidehowbesttoputitinyourownwords.    Onefinalwarningonnotetaking:asyoutakenotes,donotassumethatjust

179becausesomethingisinprint,itmustbetrue.Becarefultodistinguishbetweenawriter'sstatementoffactandexpressionofopinion.ThereisaworldofdifferencebetweensayingthatHenrikIbsenwasaNorwegiandramatistandsayingthatHenrikIbsenwasthegreatestdramatistthateverlived.Incaseswhereauthorsdisagreeonmattersoffact,dosomefastcheckingyourself.Oneofthestandardreferenceworksorencyclopediasmightbeagoodsourceforresolvingsuchdisagreementsordisputes.Whenyoudonotfeelyouhavesufficientbasisfordecidingwhichopinioniscorrect,itseemssimplecommonsensetoacknowledgefranklythedifferenceofopinionandtopresentbothopinionsashonestlyaspossible.5)Arrangementofnotes    Whenyoufeelyouhavecollectedenoughmaterialtostartplanningyourpaper,andwhenyoufindthatadditionalreferencesaremerelyrepeatingtheinformationyoualreadyhave,itistimetostopreadingawhileandputyournotesinorder.    Rereadyournotestorefreshyourmemoryandatthesametimeputthemintogroupsunderdifferentheadings.Donottrytobecreativehereandwriteadifferentheadingforeachcard;youshouldhaveseveralcardswiththesameheading.Forinstance,foryournotesonErnestHemingway,yourheadingmightinclude"HemingwayandtheLostGeneration,""Hemingway'sLife,""Hemingway'sWorks,"and"Hemingway'sContributionstoAmericanLiterature."Youmaywanttosubdividesomeoftheseheadings."Hemingway'sWorks,"forinstance,mightbefurtherdividedinto"Hemingway'sThemes,""Hemingway'sStyleandTechniques,"andperhaps,"HemingwayonWriting."    Becauseyoumaychangeyourmindaboutthepointthataparticularnoteshouldsupport,itwouldbeagoodideatowritethebriefheadinginpencilatfirst.Thatwayyoucaneasilychangetheheadingsuntilyoufeelsecureaboutthewaythenotesshouldbeused.Onceyouhavemadeafinaldecision,writeabriefheadingininkintheupperrighthandcornerofeachcardsothatitcanbeseenquicklyasyoushufflethroughyourcards.    Thisrereadingandgroupingmayhelpyouassessthenotesyouhave.Youwillfindsomenotesshouldbediscarded,becausetheydonotshedlightonyourparticulartopic;othersshouldbesupportedbyadditionalreferences.Youmayalsofindtheideaofonenoteiscontradictedbythatofanother.Disagreementsamongscholarsarecommon.Domorereadingtodecidewhichassessmentiscorrect.    Bynowyouwillhaveamuchbetterideaofwhatyouaregoingtowrite.Sonowisagoodtimetogobacktothelibrarytotryandseewhetherthereisanythingrelevantthatyouhavemissed.Hereisanotecardforyourreference:BriefidentificationBriefheadingforofthesourceofyournoteorganizationofthe\outlineandthe

180paper\__________________________/_________|\Hemingway'sThemes||R.E.Spiller,p.200--------ExactpageOpeningquotes--"InonesenseHemingwaywasmore|reference|limitedinscopethanmostofhis||contemporaries,forhehadbuta--Mainbody|singletheme-howmanmaymeet|ofthenote|deathinaworldstrippedofall||valuesexceptthatofintensity."||[d.q.]\||__/__________________________\_____|/\EditorialreminderoftheClosingquotestypeofnote:directquotation3.AnalyzingtheInformation,OrganizingIdeasandWorkingOutanOutline(1)Thethesisstatement    Whenyouhaveaccumulatedsufficientinformationforyourpaper,itistimetoshapeitintoaunified,coherentwhole,andformathesisstatementforyourpaper,thatis,asinglesentencethatexpressesyourmainpointofviewtowardyourtopic.Writingthisstatementisawayofmakingsurethatyouknowwhereyouareheadingandthatyouremainontherighttrackwhenyouplanandwrite.Inotherwords,thethesisstatementwillserveasaguidelinetoyourpaper.Whatyouaregoingtowriteshouldcenteraroundit,supportit,bearitout,anddisproveargumentsagainstit.(2)Outlining    Afteryouhaveasatisfactorythesisstatement,thenextthingyoushoulddoistoworkoutanoutlineforyourpaper.Anoutlinewillhelpyouorganizeyourideasandorderyourmaterial.However,youshouldnotalwaysbelimitedbyyouroutline.Veryoften,newideasturnupinthecourseofwritingwhichmayleadyourthoughtsinadifferentdirection.Whenthathappens,donothesitatetoreviseorreshapeyouroriginaloutlineasyougoalong.Itisnotuncommonforwriterstomakechangesintheiroutlines,eventheirthesisstatementsandtopics,aftertheyhavefinishedtheirpapers.    Ifyouhavewrittenbriefheadingsoneachcard,theoutlinewillalmostwriteitself.Youroutlinemaybeeitheratopicoutline,inwhichallpointsarementionedinshortphrases,orasentenceoutline,inwhichallpointsareexpressedincompletesentences.Asentenceoutlinemaybeclearer,foritshowssuccinctlyhoweachsectionofyourpaperwillleadtotheconclusion.    Observealltheconventionsofgoodoutliningasyouwrite.Youwoulddowelltoreferto"TypesofOutlines"inPartFivebeforeyoubegin.Thefollowingisasamplesentenceoutline.Studyitcarefully.

181TheIndependenceofJaneEyreThesisstatement:JaneEyretriedtopreserveherself-respect,independenceandself-sufficiencyateverystageofherlife,bothinstrugglingwithsocialpressureandinresistingthetemptationofpassion.Outline:Ⅰ.AtGateshead,Janebegantorealizetheimportanceofindependence.A.Jane,apoororphanoften,didnotevokesympathyfromotherpeople,becauseshewasnotpretty.B.FromJohnReedJanelearnedthatdependenceandincompetenceinvitednothingbutscorn.C.Inthe"redroom",Janebegantorealizethatsheneededtobesavedfromherblindfearofauthorityandbeself-reliant.Ⅱ.AtLowoodInstitution,Janegainedstrengthfromherteacherandfellowstudentstoachieveherindependence.A.JanelearnedfromMariaTemplethevalueofindependence.B.JanelearnedfromHelentheimportanceofdutyandself-control.Ⅲ.AtThornfieldHall,Janeshowedherindependencefully.A.Janeworkedasagovernesstosupportherself.B.JanetriedtoregaincontroloverherpassionwhenshefeltherlossofindependenceaftersheacceptedRochester'slove.1.Shewantedtobehisfriendandcompanion,butnotsomeoneinhispossession.2.Shetoldhimshepreferredhisrudeopennesstohisflattery.3.SheremainedeconomicallyindependentbymaintainingherjobasAdele'sgoverness.4.SherefusedtohavesexualrelationshipwithRochesterbecauseshefearedthatshewouldloseherindependencebecauseofpassion.5.SheleftRochesterbecauseshedidnotwanttoloseherintegrityandbecomehismistress.Ⅳ.AtMoorHouse,Janelearnedthepleasureofself-sufficiency.A.Janebecamespirituallystrongerandmoreconfidentthroughherfriendshipwiththetwosisters,DianaandMaryRivers.B.Janegainedsocialrespectbyteachinginthevillageschool.C.JanerejectedSt.John'sofferofmarriagebecauseshedidnotwanttoliveasatooltoserveGod.Ⅴ.AtFerdean,JanemarriedRochesterashisequalafterhiswife'sdeathandhislossofallhispropertyinabigfire.

182Forasampletopicoutline,referto"ASampleResearchPaper"attheendofthispart.Thereareotherwaysoflabelingthepartsofanoutline,butthetwoformsdiscussedherearethecommonest.4.WritingtheFirstDraft    Onceyouhaveyourthesisstatementandoutline,youarereadytobeginwritingyourfirstdraft.Youmayhavetowritemorethanonedraftbeforeyouhaveyourfinalpaperdone.Alltherulesofgoodwritingyouhavelearnedapplytothewritingofyourpaper.Hereareafewpointsthatdeservespecialattention:(1)Usingyourownwords    Asyouwriteyourfirstpaper,youwillbedrawinguponwhatyouhavewrittenonyournotecards.Youmayhavespentweekstakingnotes,andthenstudiedyournotescarefullyanddecidedhowtheycanbeused;butthatisonlyhalfthebattle.If,however,yousimplystringthemtogether,youwillnotbewritingaresearchpaper;youwillmerelybetranscribingyournotes.Thepapermustbeyours-yourideas,yourorganization,andforthemostpart,yourwords.Yournotesshouldbeusedtobackupyourideas,andallthesourcesshouldbeacknowledged.Otherwise,youarenotanhonestscholar,andyourpaper,notarealresearchpaper.    Touseyourownwordsinwritingyourpaperisnotalwayseasy.Youmaybetemptedtoquoteagreatdeal.Lookatthefollowingexcerptfromastudent'spaperinwhichthewritermerelystringsnotesorborrowedmaterialtogether.    W.E.B.DuBoisbelievedthat"theproblemofthetwentiethcenturyistheproblemofthecolorline."    DuBoisbecameawareofracialdifferencesatanearlyage.Herelatedthisexperiencevividly:    Theexchange[ofchildren'scallingcards]wasmerry,tillonegirl,atallnewcomer,refusedmycard-refuseditperemptorily,withaglance.ThenitdawnedonmewithacertainsuddennessthatIwasdifferentfromtheothers;orlike,mayhap,inheartandlifeandlonging,butshutoutfromthisworldbyavastveil.    DuBoisfeltthatdreamsofopportunitiesandfulfillmentwerereservedsolelyforwhites.    Theshadesoftheprison-houseclosedroundaboutusall:wallsstrait[sic]andstubborntothewhitest,butrelentlesslynarrow,tall,andunscalabletosonsofnightwhomustploddarklyoninresignation,orbeatunavailingpalmsagainstthestone,orsteadily,halfhopelessly,watchthestreakofblueabove.

183    Whenhisinfantsondied,DuBoiswasdepressed,butyetherejoicedbecausehissonwouldnothavetoendurelifebehind'theveil.'    Allthatdayandallthatnighttheresatanawfulgladnessinmyheart-nay,blamemenotifIseetheworldthusdarklythroughtheVeil,andmysoulwhispersevertome,saying,"Notdead,notdead,butescaped,notbound,butfree."Nobittermeannessnowshallsickenhisbabyhearttillitdiesalivingdeath,notauntshallmaddenhishappyboyhood.FoolthatIwastothinkorwishthatlittlesoulshouldgrowchokedanddeformedwithintheVeil!...Wellsped,myboy,beforetheworldhaddubbedyourambitioninsolence,hadheldyouridealsunattainable,andtaughtyoutocringeandbow.Betterfarthisnamelessvoidthatstopsmylifethanaseaofsorrowforyou.    Thestudenthassimplycopiedhisnotesontohispaper.SincethepurposeofthepaperisnottorevealDuBois'sstyle,buttocomparehisattitudetowardbeingblackwiththatofBookerT.Washington,thelengthyquotationsfromDuBois'sautobiographyservelittlepurposeinadvancingthestudent'sidea.Theysimplytakeupspace.Thepointcouldbemademoreclearlyifitwerephrasedlargelyinthestudent'sownwords:    W.E.B.DuBois,whobelievedthat"theproblemofthetwentiethcenturyistheproblemofthecolorline,"learnedasachildthathecouldberejectedsimplybecauseofthecolorofhisskin.Later,hecametobelievethatdreamsofopportunitiesandfulfillmentwerereservedsolelyforwhites,andhecomparedthelifeofblacksinAmericawiththatofprisoninmates.Indeed,hegrewsobitterabouttheplightofblacksthatherejoicedwhenhisinfantsondiedbecausethechildwouldneverhavetoexperiencetheprejudicethathehadfelt.    Inthisversion,thewriterhasaunifiedparagraphwhichmakeshispointclearlywithouttheuseofsomanyquotations.(Agood,saferuleofthumbis,unlessthesubjectofyourpaperisanauthor'sstyle,quotenomorethan10percentofyourpaper.)Thesecondparagraphalsoavoidsover-documentation.Fivefootnoteshavebeenreplacedbyonlytwo.Thisversionshowsamuchgreatermasteryofthematerialthandoesthefirstversion.(2)Usingthepropertenses    Theuseoftensesinaresearchpaperisaproblemtomanystudents,andtheimproperuseoftensesmayleadtoconfusionevenmisunderstandingonthepartofthereader.Hereareafewpointsforyourreference.1)Whenyouaredealingwithaneventoraconceptofthepast,thepasttenseshouldbeyourbasictenseasinthefollowingexample:

184    Afterslavery,thetrialsofemancipationhadadisruptiveeffectontheblackfamilyasaunitbecauseblacksweresuddenlyexpectedtochangemanyofthesocialvaluestakenonwhentheywereslaves.Oneofthesewastheideathatthemaleshouldbethefamilyheadandchiefprovider.But,aswithallnewsocialvaluesinanyculture,thisideawasslowingainingacceptancebyblacks;thusmatriarchyisstillanessentialfeatureoftoday'sblackfamily.2)Biographicaldetailsofaperson'slifeshouldnormallybereportedinthepasttenseasinthefollowingexample:Confucius(551BC-479BC)devotednearlyfiftyyearstoteachingandformulatedacomprehensiveandprofoundtheoryoneducation.HewasthefirstgreatChinesepublicteacher,whomadeteachingaprofession,andthuspopularizededucation.HewasthefirstinChinawhoopenlystatedthatineducationthereshouldbenoclassdistinction,andthusopenedthedoorofeducationtoall...3)Ifyoumentioneventsinastoryinchronologicalorder,usethesimplepresentforallofthem.Butthesimplepastorthepresentperfectshouldbeusedforaneventthathappenedbeforeonethathasbeenmentioned.ReadthefollowingsummaryofJaneEyre.    Theheroine,apennilessorphan,hasbeenlefttothecareofheraunt,Mrs.Reed.Harshandunsympathetictreatmentrousesthespiritofthechild,andapassionateoutbreakleadstoherconsignmenttoLowoodAsylum,acharitableinstitution,whereaftersomemiserableyearsshebecomesateacher.ThenceshepassestobeagovernessatThornfieldHalltoalittlegirl,thenaturaldaughterofMr.Rochester,amanofgrimaspectandsardonictemper.InspiteofJaneEyre'splainness,Rochesterisfascinatedbyherelfishwitandcourageousspirit,andfallsinlovewithher,andshewithhim.Theirmarriageispreventedatthelastmomentbytherevelationthathehasawifeliving,aravinglunatic,keptinseclusionatThornfieldHall.JanefleesfromtheHall,andafternearlyperishingonthemoorsistakeninandcaredforbytheRev.St.JohnRiversandhissisters.UndertheinfluenceofthestrongpersonalityofRivers,shenearlyconsents(inspiteofherundiminishedloveforRochester)tomarryhimandaccompanyhimtoIndia.SheispreventedbyatelepathicappealfromRochester,andsetsoutforThornfieldHall,tolearnthattheplacehasbeenburntdown,andthatRochester,invainlytryingtosavehiswifefromtheflames,hasbeenblindedandmaimed.Shefindshiminutterdejection,becomeshiswife,andrestoreshimtohappiness.-TheOxfordCompaniontoEnglishLiterature4)Thepresenttenseshouldalsobeusedforyourcommentsonthecontentofabookorthelanguageandstyleofanauthor.Whenyouquotefromanauthority,thereportingverbcanalsobeinthepresenttense.Soinsteadof"RichardChasesaid,""ProfessorCowleywrote,"or"T.S.Eliotstipulated,"youcanwrite"RichardChasesays,""ProfessorCowleywrites,"and"T.S.Eliotstipulates."

185(3)Unitingfactsandviews    Apaperisweakifitiscrowdedwithfactswhichdonotproveordisproveapointofview.Thereaderwillcertainlywonderwhatallthosefactsaretherefor.Hewillnotbeenlightenedonthesubjectevenifmanyofthefactsareinteresting.    Apaperwillbejustasweak,however,ifitexpressesalotofviews,evenoriginalones,withoutsupportingfacts.Thereadermaybestruckbythoseviewsatfirst,butverysoonhewillbegintodoubtiftheyarereallysound.Hewilleventhinkthatthewriterisnotseriousorhonestinproducingsuchapaper.    Aresearchpapermustcombinebothfactsandtheassessmentoffacts,bothauthentic,verifiedfactualinformationandviewsfirmlyfoundedonit.Goodpapersareinvariablymarkedbytheunityoffactsandideas.(4)Payingattentiontologicandtheorganization    Allthefactsandviewscontainedinyourpapershouldbecloselyconnectedandcenteraroundthemaintheme.Theyshouldbepresentedinlogicalordersothatyourreadermayfinditeasytounderstandthemandbeledtotheconclusionyouhavedrawn.Itisadvisabletostartaparagraph,ifpossible,withatopicsentenceanddiscussorexplaintheideaitexpressesintheparagraph.Similarly,asectionthatbeginswithaparagraphoutliningthemainpointsitisgoingtodealwithiseasiertofollowthanonethatdoesnot.(5)Makingyourtoneobjectiveratherthanpersonal    Aresearchpaperisastudyofsomeobjectivefactsorproblems,andtheconclusionsthataredrawnshouldbebasedonlyonrelevantdata,notonpersonallikesanddislikes.Yourargumentswillbeconvincingiftheyarewellgrounded,andacceptableifpresentedinacool,objectivetone.ItfollowsthatthereisnoneedtouseIorweasoftenasinanordinarycompositiononsomepersonalexperience.(6)Choosingtherightstyle    Nohardandfastrulecanbelaiddownforstyle,whichisdetermined,afterall,bypersonalpreferenceandvariesfromwritertowriter.Butforonewhoislearningtowriteresearchpapers,itisadvisabletousetheformal,writtenstyleasdescribedinPartSeven.Donotusecontractionsandavoidwritingsuchsentencesas"Well,nowI'dliketodiscuss..."Makeyourlanguageclear,straightforward,andsmooth.Aresearchpaperneednotbepompousanddifficulttounderstand.Floridexpressionsorunnecessarilycomplicatedstructureswouldonlydivertyourreader'sattentionfromthemainissue.Besides,theyareoftenboring.Makeaspecialefforttoworkthequotationsintoyourownstatementssothatthesmoothnessofyourlanguageisnotdisturbedandyourstyleisconsistentfrombeginningtoend.5.RevisingtheDraftandFinalizingthePaper

186    Youmayhavetoreviseyourpaperseveraltimestillyouaresatisfiedwithit.Whenyouarerevisingyourdraft,makesurethatyourpaperhasunity,coherence,andclarity.AsissuggestedinthechecklistinPartFivefortherevisionofacomposition,youshouldstartfromthecontent.Makesureyouhaveaunifiedpointofview.Deleteanyfactorviewthatisirrelevant,unimportantorrepetitive.Seetoitthatthefactsandviewsarearrangedinsuchawaythattheywillprove,stepbystep,logicallyandconvincinglythatyourpointofviewiscorrectandyourconclusionsound.Toimprovethefluencyandcoherenceofyourpaper,youmayneedtoaddtransitionstoshowhowonesentencerelatestoanotherandhowoneparagraphleadstothenext.Ifatplacesyourpresentationofideasseemsillogicalorconfusing,youmayfinditnecessarytorearrangephrases,clauses,sentences,orparagraphs.    Youshouldalsopayattentiontootheraspectsofyourlanguage,suchasbrevityinwordingandvarietyinsentencepatterns.    Finally,youshouldseetoitthatyoucorrectallthetechnicalerrorsinyourdraft,includingpunctuation,grammar,spellingandtheformatofyournotesandbibliography.Makeacleancopyofyourfinaldraft,proofreaditcarefullyandhaveallthemistakescorrected,andnowyourresearchpaperisready.Ⅱ.Format1.TheStructureofaPaperGenerallyspeaking,aresearchpaperconsistsoffiveparts:(1)thesisstatementandoutline;(2)introduction;(3)body;(4)conclusion;and(5)notesandbibliography.(1)ThesisstatementandoutlineThethesisstatementisthefocusofapaper.Itsetsforththepropositionorthemainpointofviewthepaperisgoingtoproveormaintain,andisusuallyinonesentence.Thethesisstatementshouldhaveanargumentativeedge.Itshouldnotbedescriptiveandreadlike"Thispaperintendsto..."whichshouldbeintheintroduction.Thethesisstatementshouldbefollowedbyanoutlineofthepaper.Thethesisstatementandtheoutlinewillguidethewriterinwritingthepaperandwillenablethefuturereadertograspthemainpointsofthepaperataglance.(2)Introduction    Theintroductionusuallyexplainsthewriter'smotive,intentionorpurposeindiscussinghisorhertopic,anditsscopeandfocus.Italsoprovidesthebackgroundorthesituationthereadermayneed.Inotherwords,theintroductionshouldmakeclearwhythewriterchoosestowritesuchapaperandhowmuchheorsheintendstocover.Itmayraisesomequestionsthepaperisgoingtoanswer,orputforwardthevieworviewsitisgoingtoelaborate.Itmayalsomakeclearthemethodormethodsofresearchthewriterintendstoadoptinthepaper.    Generallyspeaking,theintroductionshouldpresentsomeroughideasofthepaper

187andarousethefuturereader'sinterest.Itneednotbetoolong,oneortwoparagraphsshouldbeenough.(3)Body    Thebodyisthebulk,thebiggestpartofthepaper.Thisiswherethewriterelaborateshisorherideasindetail.Itisadvisabletodividethebodyintoseveralsectionswithorwithoutheadingsorsubheadings.Usually,papersonlinguisticstendtouseheadings.Butthewritershouldbecarefulnottousetoomanyheadingsordifferentkindsofnumeralsbeforesectionsandparagraphsfortheymayconfuseratherthanhelpthereader.(4)Conclusion    Theconclusionshouldinsomewaybeconnectedwiththeintroduction.Itisasummaryorrestatementofthepointofviewputforward,orananswertothequestionposed,intheintroduction.(5)Notesandbibliography    Notesmaybeplacedatthebottomofthepageonwhichthereferencesoccur(footnotes),orgiveninaconsecutiveseriesattheendofthepaper(endnotes).Obviously,theformerismoreconvenienttothereader,whilethelattermakesthetypingeasier.    Thebibliographyshouldbeplacedaftertheendnotesonaseparatesheetorsheets.2.UseofQuotations    Therearetwokindsofquotations:directandindirectquotations.Adirectquotationisexactlythesameastheoriginal,accurateineverysenseincludingthepunctuation,andmustbeputinquotationmarks.Anindirectquotationmaybeaninterpretation,aparaphrase,orasummaryoftheoriginalinthewriter'sownwords.Therulesregardingtheuseofquotationsare:usethemsparingly,makethemanaturalpartofthepaper,andprovidethesourceofeveryquotation.    Mostoftheproblemsintheuseofquotationscomefromtheusedirectquotations.Hereareafewpointsforyourreference.(1)Whentousedirectquotations    Itispossibletowriteapaperwithoutusinganydirectquotations.Thereare,however,somecasesinwhichdirectquotationsarecalledfor:1)Ifyoursubjectisaliteraryone,youwould,ofcourse,wanttorepresentthestyleoftheauthor.Indeed,yourpurposemightdemandananalysisofcertainpassagesinthework.Inthatcase,youcertainlymustquotethepassagesthatyouintendtodiscussin

188detail.FollowingisasectionofapaperinwhichthewriterarguesthatHermanMelville,incomposingMoby-Dick,wasinfluencedbySamuelTaylorColeridge's"TheRimeoftheAncientMariner":    OneotherimageinChapters51and52ofMoby-DickillustratesaslightlydifferentaspectoftheprocessofadaptingColeridge'simages.Inthisimage,MelvilleincorporatesboththeimageandthemoodofthesourceinColeridge'swork.ItoccurswhilethePequodisstillattheCapeofGoodHope:    Fewornowordswerespoken,andthesilentship,asifmannedbypaintedsailorsinwax,dayafterdaytoreonthroughtheswiftmadnessandgladnessofthedemoniacwaves.    Exceptthattheshipisgivenmotion,itissurelytheAncientMariner'sshiponwhichDayafterday,dayafterdayWestuck,norbreathnormotion;AsidleasapaintedshipUponapaintedocean.Clearly,inthispaperthequotationsarenecessarytoshowColeridge'sinfluenceonMelville'swork.2)Iftheoriginalissoperfectlystatedthatmuchofitsvalueisinthewayitisworded,youmaywanttoquotetheoriginal.FrancisBacon'swell-knownremarkaboutreadingmightbesuchaquotation:Somebooksaretobetasted,otherstobeswallowed,andsomefewtobechewedanddigested;thatis,somebooksaretobereadonlyinparts;otherstobereadbutnotcuriously;andsomefewtobereadwholly,andwithdiligenceandattention.3)Ifyoursourcehasmadeastatementwhichissooutrageousorcontroversialthatreadersofyourpapermightquestionwhetheryouhaverepresentedtheideacorrectly,quotetheoriginalstatement.(2)Howtousedirectquotations1)Whenyoudoquote,makeeveryeffortyoucantoworkthequotationintoyourownstatement.Itwillbeobvious,ofcourse,thatyouarequoting,buttheflowofyoursentenceshouldnotbeaffectedbythequotation:    Forsterpointsdirectlytotheneedformyth:"WhyhasnotEnglandagreatmythology?"heasks,andsuggeststhatEngland'smythology"hasnotadvancedbeyonddaintiness"because,unlikeGreekmythology,ithasnotderivedfromtheearth.

189    Becausethequotationsareworkedintothewriter'sownsentence,theyrequirenospecialpunctuationotherthanthequotationmarks.Ifyouwanttointroducealongerquotation,punctuationdependsonthewordsthatprecedethequote.2)Iftheintroductorywordsformacompletesentence,useacolon:    ThatForsterintendedtoestablishman'sneedforconnectionwiththeearthisevidentinhisstatementaboutLondon:    Londonwasbutaforetasteofthisnomadiccivilizationwhichisalteringhumannaturesoprofoundly,andthrowsuponpersonalrelationsastressgreaterthantheyhaveeverbornebefore.Undercosmopolitanism,ifitcomes,weshallreceivenohelpfromtheearth.Treesandmeadowsandmountainswillonlybeaspectacle,andthebindingforcethattheyonceexercisedoncharactermustbeentrustedtoLovealone.MayLovebeequaltothetask!3)Iftheintroductorywordsdonotformacompletesentence,imaginethatthequoteitselfistherestofthesentenceandpunctuateaccordingly:    AccordingtoForster,    Londonwasbutaforetasteofthisnomadiccivilizationwhichisalteringhumannaturesoprofoundly,andthrowsuponpersonalrelationsastressgreaterthantheyhaveeverbornebefore...    Asalltheaboveexamplesofquotationsillustrate,youshouldputashortquotationintoyourownparagraphorsentence,indicatingthatthematerialisquotedbyplacingquotationmarksaroundthequotedpassage.Longquotations(generallyspeaking,thoseofmorethanfourlineseach)shouldbesetoffbythemselves.Thequotedmattershouldbeblocked.Whenyoublockaquotation,youshouldnotusequotationmarks.Thatthematerialisblockedmeansthatitisalongdirectquotation.3.UseofNotes    Whenyoutakefactsorideasfromsomeoneelse,youmustcreditthesourcebyfootnotingorend-notingthematerial.Suchastatementoftenfrightensstudents,oratleastmakesthemfeeluneasy,becausetheirfirstassumptionisthattheywillhavetonotealmosteverysentenceintheirpapers.Thatisnotthecase.Youshould,ofcourse,notealldirectquotations.Youshouldalsonoteallfactsandopinionswhicharenotcommonknowledgeandarederivedfromothersources,evenwhenyouhaveputthefactsoropinionsintoyourownwords.Atthispointyoumaybefeelingvaguelydisturbedbythefussbeingmadeaboutapparenttrivialitiesofquotingandnoting.Unfortunately,thesearetheonlydevicesbywhichyourreaderwillbeabletodistinguishbetweenthematerialdrawnfromothersourcesandthematerialthatisyourown.Ifyoudonotpaythemostcareful

190attentiontothetechniquesofquotingandnoting,youruntheriskofbeingaccusedofplagiarism.(1)Avoidingplagiarism    Plagiarismistheuseoffacts,opinions,andlanguagetakenfromanotherwriterwithoutacknowledgement.Initsmostsordidform,plagiarismisoutrighttheftorcheating:apersonhasanotherpersonwritethepaperorsimplystealsamagazinearticleorsectionofabookandpretendstohaveproducedapieceoforiginalwriting.Farmorecommonisplagiarismindribsanddrabs:asentencehereandthere,aparagraphhereandthere.Unfortunately,small-timetheftisstilltheft,andsmall-timeplagiarismisstillplagiarism.Foryourownsafetyandself-respect,rememberthefollowingrules-notguidelines,rules:1)Thelanguageinyourpapermusteitherbeyourownoradirectquotefromtheoriginalauthor.2)Changingafewwordsorphrasesfromanotherwriter'sworkisnotenoughtomakethewriting"yourown."RememberRule1).Thewritingiseitheryourownortheotherperson's;therearenoin-betweens.3)Notesacknowledgethatthefactsoropinionsinyourpapercomefromanotherwriter.Ifthelanguagecomesfromanotherwriter,quotationmarksarenecessaryinadditiontoanote.Nowforadetailedexample.OriginalPassage    In1925Dreiserproducedhismasterpiece,themassivelyimpressiveAnAmericanTragedy.Bythistime-thankslargelytothetirelesspropagandizingonhisbehalfbytheinfluentialmaverickcriticH.L.MenckenandbyothersconcernedwitharealisticapproachtotheproblemsofAmericanlife-Dreiser'sfamehadbecomesecure.HewasseenasthemostpowerfulandeffectivedestroyerofthegenteeltraditionthathaddominatedpopularAmericanfictioninthepost-CivilWarperiod,spreadingitssoftblanketofprovincial,sentimentalromanceovertheoftenuglyrealitiesoflifeinmodern,industrialized,urbanAmerica.CertainlytherewasnothinggenteelaboutDreiser,eitherasmanornovelist.Hewasthesupremepoetofthesqualid,amanwhofelttheterror,thepity,andthebeautyunderlyingtheAmericandream.Withaneyeatonceruthlessandcompassionate,hesawthetragedyinherentintheAmericansuccessethic;thesoftunderbelly,asitwere,oftheHoratioAlgerrags-to-richesmythsoappealingtotheoptimisticAmericanimagination.[RichardFreedman,TheNovel(NewYork:NewsweekBooks,1975)104-105.] 

191StudentVersionTherewasnothinggenteelaboutDreiser,eitherasmanornovelist.Hewasthesupremepoetofthesqualid,amanwhofelttheterror,thepity,andthebeautyunderlyingtheAmericandream.TherewasnothinggenteelaboutDreiser,eitherasmanornovelist.Hewasthesupremepoetofthesqualid,amanwhofelttheterror,thepity,andthebeautyunderlyingtheAmericandream.NothingwasgenteelaboutDreiserasamanoranovelist.Hewasthepoetofthesqualidandfeltthatterror,pityandbeautylurkedundertheAmericandream."Nothingwasgenteelaboutdreiserasamanorasanovelist.Hewasthepoetofthesqualidandfeltthatterror,pity,andbeautylurkedundertheAmricandream." By1925Dreiser'sreputationwasfirmlyestablished.ThereadingpublicviewedDreiserasoneofthemaincontributorstothedownfallofthe"genteeltradition"inAmericanliterature,Dreiser,"thesupremepoetofthesqualid."lookedbeneaththebrightsurfaceofamericanlifeandvaluesanddescribedthefrighteningandtragicelements,the"uglyrealities,"sooftenoverlookedbyotherwriters. CommentObviousplagiarism:word-for-wordrepetitionwithoutacknowledgement.StillPlagiarism.Thefoot-notealonedoesnothelp.Thelanguageistheoriginalauthor'sandonlyquotationmarksaroundthewholepassageplusafootnotewouldbecorrect.Stillplagiarism,Afewwordshavebeenchangedoromitted,butbynostretchoftheimaginationisthestudentwriterusinghisownlanguage.Notquiteplagiarism,butincorrectandinaccurate.QuotationmarksindicateQuotationmarksindicateexactrepetitionofwhatwasoriginallywritten.Thestudentwriter,however,haschangedsomeoftheoriginalandisnotentitledtousequotationmarks.Correct.Thestudentwriteruseshisownwordstosummarizemostoftheoriginalpassage.Thefootnoteshowsthattheideasexpressedcomefromtheoriginalwriter,notfromthestudent.Thefewphraseskeptfromtheoriginalpassagearecarefullyenclosedinquotationmarks.(2)Noteforms

192    Whenyouarereadytoaddyourfootnotesorendnotestoyourpaper,youwillhavetoconsultyourbibliographycardsinordertochangethebriefnotationswhichyoumadeonyournotecardsintopropernoteentries.Asyouwillseebystudyingtheexamplesofvariouskindsoffootnotesorendnotesbelow,anotecontainsessentiallythesameinformationasdoesabibliographyentry,butthearrangementandpunctuationofthatinformationarealittledifferent.Afirstnotereferencetoabookshouldincludetheauthor,thetitle,theplace,publisher,dateofpublication,andthepagenumber(s)referredto:1)Author:Theauthor'snameshouldbeinitsusualorderbutnotinvertedasinabibliography.Theauthor'snameisfollowedbyacomma.2)Title:Thetitleofabookshouldbeunderlinedoritalicized.Thetitleofashortstoryoranarticleshouldbeputinquotationmarks.Thetitleisnotfollowedbyacommaoraperiodbuthalfoftheparentheses.3)Placeofpublication:Theplaceofpublication,eitheracityoratown,shouldbeputintheparentheses,andtheplaceisfollowedbyacolon.Ifthestateorprovincewherethecityortownislocatedisalsomentioned,youshouldputthecityortownbeforethestateorprovinceandputacommainbetweenandacolonafterthestateorprovince.4)Publisher:Thepress,companyorpublishinghouseisalsoputintheparenthesesandisfollowedbyacomma.NotethatUPisusedfor"UniversityPress"andPfor"Press".5)Dateofpublication:Thisisputafterthepublisherandisfollowedbytheotherhalfoftheparentheses.Soyoucanseethatitems3),4)and5)inanoteareallputintheparentheses.Outsidetheparentheses,thereshouldbenopunctuation.6)Pagenumber(s):Thepagenumber(s)isputoutsidetheparenthesesandisfollowedbyaperiod.Thefollowingaresomesamplesoffirstnotesforthesourcescitedinthediscussionofbibliography.Noticethedifferencesintheuseofpunctuationbetweenabibliographyentryandanoteentry.ABookwithOneAuthor1AndrewHacker,TwoNations:BlackandWhite,Seperate,Hostile,Unequal(NewYork:CharlesScriber'sSons,1992)181.ABookwithTwoAuthors2MarliesK.DanzigerandW.StacyJohnson,AnIntroductiontoLiteraryCriticism(Boston:D.C.HeathandCompany,1961)324.

193ABookwithThreeorMoreAuthors3RobertN.Bellahandothers,HabitsoftheHeart:IndividualismandCommitmentinAmericanLife(NewYork:Harper&Row,Publishers,1985)151-52.ABookwithanEditor4LorenJ.Kallsen,ed.,TheKentuckyTragedy:AProbleminRomanticAttitudes(Indianapolis:TheBobbs-MerrillCompany,Inc.,1963)371-72.AnEditionofanAuthor'sWork5HenryDavidThoreau,CollectedPoems,ed.CarlBode(Chicago:PackardandCo.,1943)189.Iftheeditor'sselectionandarrangement,nottheauthor'swork,isunderdiscussion,usethefollowingform:6DonaldA.Stauffer,ed.,SelectedPoetryandProseofColeridge(NewYork:TheModernLibrary,1951)xii.AnEditionOtherThantheFirst7JohnB.GabelandCharlesB.Wheeler,TheBibleAsLiterature:AnIntroduction,2nded.(NewYork:OxfordUP,Inc.,1990)22.Iftheeditionwerearevisededitionratherthananumberededition,theabbreviation"rev.ed."wouldappearafterthetitle.AnEditedCollectionorAnthology8ShannonRavenel,ed.,TheBestAmericanShortStoriesoftheEighties(Boston:HoughtonMifflinCompany,1990)151-56.ATranslatedWork9HeinrichBoll,EndofaMission,trans.LeilaVennewitz(NewYork:McGraw-HillBookCompany,1974)345.AWorkofMoreThanOneVolume10WallaceE.Adamsandothers,eds.,TheWesternWorld:To1770,I(NewYork:Dodd,MeadandCompany,1968)548.Noticethatalthoughthebibliographyentryreferstoatwo-volumework,thewriterhasreferredonlytothefirstvolume.

194OneSectionofaBookWrittenbySeveralAuthors11ArthurMizener,"ToMeetMr.Eliot,"T.S.Eliot:ACollectionofCriticalEssays,ed.HughKenner(EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:Prentice-Hall,Inc.,1962)20.ABookwithanAnonymousAuthor12TheSongofRoland,trans,FredrickBlissLuquines(NewYork:Macmillan,1960)22.ACorporateAuthor13EditorialBoardofEncylopediaofNewChina,EncyclopdiaofNewChina(Beijing:ForeignLanguagesP,1987)11.ASignedArticleinanEncyclopedia14VincentBrome,"Freud,Sigmund,"EncyclopediaBritannica,1977,Ⅶ,738.    Anotereferencetoamagazineshouldincludetheauthor,thetitleofthearticle,thenameofthemagazine,thevolumeandissuenumber,thedate,andthepageorpagesreferredto.Anotetoamagazineisalmostidenticaltothebibliographyentryexceptthattheauthor'snameisnotinvertedand,insteadofgivingallthepagesofthearticle-asinabibliography-youindicateonlythespecificpageorpagesreferredtoinyourtext.ASignedArticleinaMagazine15JohnT.Elson,"MuchAdo,"Time19Jan.1976:71.Thenamesofmonthsconsistingofoverfivelettersareusuallyabbreviated.AnArticlefromaJournal16AnnetteT.Rubinstein,"TheDarkJourneyofEugeneO'Neill,"Mainstream10.4(1957):31.    Thisisanarticlefromajournalinwhichpagesarenumberedseparatelyforeachissue.NoticethatbothVol.andpp.areomittedwhenvolumeandthepagenumbersaregiven.Theissuenumberfollowsthevolumenumberwithaperiodinbetween:10.4signifiesvolume10,issue4.AnUnsignedArticleinaNewspaper17"TwinGamesBid:Wrestling,Judo,"NewYorkTimes9Apr.1972,Sec.5:15.

195BiblicalReferences18Genesis11:5.19Exodus2:1-10(NewInternationalVersion).EditionsoftheBibleotherthantheKingJamesversionshouldbenotedwithinparentheses.Notethattitlesofsacredwritings,includingallbooksandversionsoftheBible,arenotitalicized.Ordinarily,everydirectquotationshouldcarryanote.However,ifyouaredoingaresearchpaperon,say,anovel,youcanbesparedhavingtodocumenteveryquotationfromthenovelbyusinganotelikethisthefirsttimeyouquotefromthenovel:CharlotteBronte,JaneEyre(NewYork:DellPublishingCo.Inc.,1961)134.Subsequentdocumentationofquotationsfromthisnovelwillbein-textnotes(titleofthebookfollowedbypagenumberornumbers)withinparentheses.    Paraphrasedmaterialmayormaynotneedanote.Ifthefactorinformationthatyoureportinyourownwordsisgenerallyknownbypeopleknowledgeableonthesubject,youprobablywouldnothavetodocumentthatparaphrasedmaterial.When,however,youcannotresolveyourdoubtaboutwhethertheparaphrasedmaterialneedstobedocumentedwithafootnotethatrevealsthesourceoftheinformation,documentit.    Whenyouaresummarizing,inyourownwords,agreatdealofinformationthatyouhavegatheredfromyourreading,youcanbesparedhavingtodocumentseveralsentencesinthatsummarybyputtinganotenumberafterthefirstsentenceofthesummaryandusinganotelikethis:10Forthebiographicalinformationpresentedinthisandthesubsequentparagraph,IamindebtedtoMinnieM.Brashear,MarkTwain:SonofMissouri(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1934)34-65andGamalielBradford,"MarkTwain,"AtlanticMonthly125(Apr.1920):462-73.    Thusfarwehavebeendealingwiththedetailedfirstreferencetoanysource.Subsequentreferencestothesamesourcesaremuchshorterandmuchsimpler.Foralmostanymaterial,theauthor'slastnameandapagenumberwillbesufficient:4Moers199.18Mizener21.    Ibid.,theabbreviationoftheLatinadverbibidem,meaning"inthesameplace,"maybeusedifthesourceinthatnoteisthesameastheonecitedintheimmediatelyprecedingnote:

19615Hessl2.16Ibid.17Ibid.34.    TheremustbeaddedtoIbid.onlywhatchangesfromtheprevioussource.Thusinnote17above,34wasaddedtoIbid.becausethepagenumberchanged.Ifnothingchanged,simplyputdownIbid.,asisshowninnote16.However,ifareaderwouldhavetoturnbackoneormorepagestofindthelastsourcecited,itwouldbebettertousethelast-nameshortenedform:(16)Hess,34.Ifyourreferenceistoonevolumeofamulti-volumework,yourfootnotewillneedtoincludethevolumenumber:6Adamset.al.(et.al.=andothers),Ⅱ,78.    Ifyouhaveusedmorethanoneworkbythesameauthor,thepagenumberandauthor'snamewillnotgivethereaderenoughinformation.Writethetitleoftheworkaftertheauthor'slastname.Ifthetitleislong,youmayuseashortenedform.Afterfirstreferences,forexample,toThomasHardy'sTheMayorofCasterbridgeandTessoftheD'Urbervilles,subsequentreferencesmaylooklikethis:7Hardy,Mayor30.9Hardy,Tess127.    Whentheauthorisunknownorunnamed,subsequentreferencesconsistofthetitleandpagenumber:    18"TrudeauonSeparatism"20.19"MassachusettsBayCompany"1317.    Aswasmentionedearlier,footnotesappearatthebottomofeachpageofthetextofyourpaperandendnotesareplacedinonelonglistonaseparatepageorpagesimmediatelyafterthetext.Ifyouchoosetohavefootnotes,makesurethatyoukeepnumericalsequencethroughoutthepaper:donotbeginwithanewfootnotenumber1oneachpage.Separatethefootnotesfromyourtext,leavingtwolinesofspace.Donotstartafootnoteononepageandcompleteitonthenext.Consultyourtutorforthenotingmethodyoushoulduse.Ifyourtutorhasnopreference,youwillprobablyfinditeasiertohaveendnotesonaseparatepageorpagesimmediatelyafterthetextofyourpaper.    Thefirstlineofeverynoteisindentedfromtheleft-handmargin(usuallythesamenumberofspacesasparagraphindentationsinthebodyofyourpaper),butanysubsequentlinesofthesamenotearebroughtouttotheleft-handmargin.Thenumeralforafootnoteoranendnoteshouldbeplacedbeforethenote,halfaspacehigherthanthenoteentry.Thereshouldbeonespacebetweenthenumeralandthenote

197entry.    Footnotesaredouble-spacedwithinafootnoteandbetweenfootnotes.Endnotesarealsodouble-spacedbothwithinanoteandbetweennotes.4.Bibliography    Abibliography,inthesensethatyouwillbeusingtheterm,isalistofbooks,articles,andotherpublicationswhichserveasthesourcesofinformationforyourpaper.Therearetwokindsofbibliographies:theworkingbibliographyandthefinalbibliography.Theworkingbibliographyisasetofcardslistingallsourceswhichmightbeusefultoyou.Thefinalbibliography,whichyouwillprepareafteryoucompleteyourpaper,isthelistofsourcesyouhaveactuallyusedinwritingthepaper.Sinceyoucannotknowinadvancewhichbooksorarticleswillcontainusefulinformation,youwillhavetopreparebibliographycardsforeverysourcethatlooksuseful.Asyouread,youwilleliminatecardsforthosesourceswhichturnouttobeuseless.(1)TheBookCatalogue    Themostcommonmethodoflistingbooksisbymeansofacardcatalogue,analphabeticalfilingsysteminwhichaseparatecardisusedtoindexeverybookinthelibrary.    Thelibrarywilllisteverybookitholdsthreetimes:onecardwilllistthebookbyitssubject,anotheronewilllistitbyauthor,andthethirdwilllistthebookbytitle.TheChartistsbyPeterSearby,forexample,wouldbelistedamongtheC's(forChartists)inthetitlefile-The,a,andanarenotusedinalphabetizing.ThebookwouldalsobelistedamongtheS's(forSearby,Peter)intheauthorfile,andamongthebooksofhistoryinthesubjectfile.    Inadditiontolistingbooksbyauthor,title,andsubject,mostcardcataloguesusuallyalsocontaincross-referencecardswhichsuggestothersubjectheadings.If,forexample,youlookedupnewspapers,across-referencecardmighttellyouto"seejournalism."(2)MakingBibliographyCards    Inpreparingyourworkingbibliography,themostefficientmethodistomakeoutathree-by-five-inchcardforeachpromisingtitleyoufind.Obviously,youwillnotuseallthesourcesforwhichyoumakecards,butitsavestimetomakecardsforanytitlethatmightbeusefulbeforeyoubeginyourreading.Cardsareeasytohandle,andtheypermityoutoaddnewsourcesordeletesourceswhichturnouttobeuseless.Cardscanalsobealphabetizedeasilyandthatwillsaveyoutimewhenyoumakeupyourfinalbibliography,whichmustbealphabetized.(3)BibliographyCardsforBooks

198    Itisimportantthatyoumakeproperbibliographycardsasyougoalongbecause,again,followingthecorrectprocedurenowwillsaveyoutimeandfrustrationwhenyoubegintowritenotesandbibliographyentriesforyourpaper.Makecertain,then,thateachofyourbookcardsincludesthefollowinginformationandadherestoallthegiveninstructionsonmattersofform:1)Thecompletecallnumberofthebook.Ifyoudonotcopythecompletecallnumbercorrectly,youcannotgetthebook;2)Theauthor'sname(lastnamefirst),followedbyaperiod;3)Thetitleofthebook,underlinedandfollowedbyaperiod;4)Foranessay,apoem,ashortstory,oraplayinacollection,thetitleoftherelevantselection,followedbyaperiodandenclosedinquotationmarks;5)Thecityinwhichthebookwaspublished,followedbyacolon;6)Thenameofthepublishingcompany,followedbyacomma;and7)Thecopyrightdate,followedbyaperiod.    Somebookswillrequireevenmoreinformation.Ifthebookisedited,theeditor'snamemustalsoappearonthecard,andifthebookistranslated,thetranslator'snamemustbegiven.Ifthebookhasmorethanoneeditionorhasbeenrevised,thatinformationshouldappearonyourcard.Finally,iftheworkcontainsmorethanonevolume,thenumberofvolumesandthevolumenumberyouwantshouldbeindicated.Belowaretwosamplecards.Ecall→J34516numberD548da=3Dickens,Charles.A005254DavidCopperfield.London:Dent,1956.EcallJ311number→S555=2ShihNai-an.WaterMargin.Trans.J.H.Jackson.Ed.FangLo-tien.Shanghai:Shangwu,1937.2v.Thefollowingaresomepossiblebibliographyformsforbooks:ABookwithOneAuthorHacker,Andrew.TwoNations:BlackandWhite,Separate,Hostile,Unequal.NewYork:CharlesScriber'sSons,1992.ABookwithTwoAuthors

199Danziger,MarliesK.,andW.StacyJohnson.AnIntroductiontoLiteraryCriticism.Boston:D.C.HeathandCompany,1961.Onlythenameofthefirstauthorisinverted.Theorderofthenamesisthesameasthatonthetitlepage.ABookwithThreeorMoreAuthorsBellah,RobertN.,andothers.HabitsoftheHeart:IndividualismandCommitmentinAmericanLife.NewYork:Harper&Row,Publishers,1985.    Onlythenameofthefirstauthorisgiven,anditisfollowedby"andothers"orthenotationetal.Thenamegivenisthefirstnamethatappearsonthetitlepage.ABookwithanEditorKallsen,LorenJ.,ed.TheKentuckyTragedy:AProbleminRomanticAttitudes.Indianapolis:TheBobbs-MerrillCompany,Inc.,1963.Theeditorcollectedseveraldocumentsaboutafamousmurdercase.Noauthorsaregiven,andtheeditor'snameislistedbeforethetitle.AnEditionofanAuthor'sWorkThoreau,HenryDavid.CollectedPoems.Ed.CarlBode.Chicago:PackardandCo.,1943.However,iftheeditor'sselectionandarrangementratherthanthetextisunderdiscussion,placetheeditor'snamefirst,followedbyacomma,followedby"ed."or"eds."Stauffer,DonaldA.,ed.SelectedPoetryandProseofColeridge.NewYork:TheModernLibrary,1951.AnEditionOtherThantheFirstGabel,JohnB.,andCharlesB.Wheeler.TheBibleAsLiterature:AnIntroduction.2nded.NewYork:OxfordUP,Inc.,1990.Iftheeditionwerearevisededitionratherthananumberededition,theabbreviation"Rev.ed."wouldappearafterthetitle.AnEditedCollectionorAnthologyRavenel,Shannon,ed.TheBestAmericanShortStoriesoftheEighties.Boston:HoughtonMifflinCompany,1990.

200Ravenelcollectedshortstorieswrittenbyseveraldifferentauthors.ATranslatedWorkBoll,Heinrich.EndofaMission.Trans.LeilaVennewitz.NewYork:McGraw-HillBookCompany,1974.Ciardi,John,trans.ThePurgatorio.ByDunte.NewYork:NewAmericanLibrary,1961.Ifthetranslator'sworkrathertheoriginaltextisunderdiscussion,putthetranslator'snamefirst.AWorkofMoreThanOneVolumeAdms,WallaceE.,andothers,eds.TheWesternWorld:To1770.2vols.NewYork:Dodd,MeadandCompany,1968.APamphletTreatapamphletasifitwereabook,usingthenameofthecommitteeororganizationthatputsthepamphlettogetherastheauthorifnoauthor'snameisprovided.OneSectionofaBookWrittenbySeveralAuthorsMizener,Arthur."ToMeetMr.Eliot."T.S.Eliot:ACollectionofCriticalEssays.Ed.HughKenner.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:Prentice-Hall,Inc.,1962.ABookwithanAnonymousAuthorIftheauthorshipofabookisunknown,thereferencebeginswiththetitleofthebook,alphabetizesbythefirstwordofthetitleotherthanadefiniteorindefinitearticle.AHandbookofKorea.4thed.Seoul:KoreanOverseasInformationService,MinistryofCultureandInformation,1982.ACorporateAuthor.EditorialBoardofEncyclopediaofNewChina.EncyclopediaofNewChina.Beijing:ForeignLanguagesPress,1987.EncyclopediaArticlesBrome,Vincent."Freud,Sigmund."EncyclopediaBritannica.1977.

201Theabovesampleshowsthestandardformforasignedencyclopediaarticle.Inmanyencyclopedias,theauthor'sinitialsaregivenattheendofthearticle.Youwillhavetocheckthelistofabbreviationsatthebeginningofthevolumetofindtheauthor'sname.Thestandardformforanencyclopediaarticleshouldgivethenameoftheauthor,lastnamefollowedbyacommaandthenfirstnamefollowedbyaperiod;thetitleofthearticleinquotationmarks,withaperiodbeforetheclosingquotationmarks;thenameoftheencyclopedia,underlinedoritalicizedandfollowedbyaperiod;andthedate,followedbyaperiod.Anotherbibliographyformforencyclopediasisthis:"Mandarin."EncyclopediaAmerica.1980ed.(4)BibliographyEntriesforOtherKindsofSourcesBookReviewIfthebookreviewhasatitle,treatthereviewasyouwouldanyothermagazinearticle.Ifthereviewisuntitled,treatitasfollows:Adams,Phoebe-Lou.Rev.ofBlackSun,byGeoffreyWolff.AtlanticSept.1976:99.ArticlesinMagazinesandNewspapersElso,JohnT."MuchAdo."Time19Jan.1976:71.Rubinstein,AnnetteT."TheDarkJourneyofEugeneO'Neill."Mainstream10.4(1957):29-33.Sometimesamagazinearticleisprintedonpagesthatareseparatedbyotherarticles;forexample,thefirstpartappearsonpp.37-39,thelastonpp.88-92.Asarule,onlythenumberofthefirstpageneedbegiveninabibliographicalentry."TwinGamesBid:Wrestling,Judo."NewYorkTimes9Apr.1972,Sec.5:15.BiblesTheBible.TheBible.NewInternationalVersion.TheKingJamesVersionisassumedunlessanotherversionisspecified.ABookbyaChineseAuthorYuanKe袁珂.ZhongguoGudaiShenhua中国古代神话(AncientChineseMythology).Shanghai:Shangwu,1957.

202TheRomanizedtransliterationoftheauthor'snameisfollowedbytheChinesecharactersandaperiod.ThetransliterationandtheChinesecharactersforthetitleofthebookarefollowedbytheEnglishtranslationinparenthesesandaperiod.ThereisnoneedtogivetheChinesecharactersforthecityinwhichthebookwaspublishedandforthenameofthepublishingcompany.(5)FinalBibliographyThefinalbibliographylistssourcesactuallyreferredtoinyourpaper.Itmayalsoincludematerialthatwasofgenuinevalueinaddingtoyourinsightsandperspectivesonthesubjectbutwhichyoudidnothaveoccasiontorefertospecifically.(Suchsourcesaresometimeslistedseparatelyundertheheading"SupplementaryBibliography.")Thefinalbibliographyshouldnotincludetitlesyouconsultedthatturnedouttobeoflittleornovalueinyourpaper.Inthefinalbibliography,allsourcestobeincludedarealphabeticallyarranged,bythelastnamesoftheauthors,inasinglelist.Ifseveralworksbythesameauthorarelisted,adashisusedinplaceoftheauthor'snameforeachitemfollowingthefirst.Allitemsshouldbeginflushontheleft-handsidewithoutindention.Ifanentryrequiresmorethanoneline,thesecondorthirdlineshouldbeindentedfivespaces.Theformofabibliographyentrydiffersinsomewaysfromthatofanotereference.Thefollowingshowshowthetwoformshandleacitationforthesamebook.BibliographyRyan,Edwin.AcollegeHandbooktoNewman.Washington,D.C.:CatholicEducationP.1930.FootnoteEdwinRyan,ACollegeHandbooktoNewman(Washington,D.C.:CatholicEducationP,1930)109. Thebibliographyshouldbedouble-spacedwithinanentryandbetweenentries.Notesandbibliographyforworksonsocialandphysicalsciencesmaybesimpler.Herearesomeexamples:Notes1M.A.K.Halliday(1971).2G.Leech(1969),23.3M.A.Leaska(1970),13-14.4SeeF.deSaussure(1959),13.5SeeR.Fowler(1977),103,13.6SeeH.H.ClarkandE.V.Clark(1977),Chs.1-7,especiallypages65,292.Bibliography

203Clark,H.H.,andClark,E.V.(1977),PsychologyandLanguage,NewYork,HarcoutBraceJovanovich.Fowler,R.(1977),LinguisticsandtheNovel,London,Methuen.Halliday,M.A.K.(1971),'Linguisticfunctionandliterarystyle:aninquiryintoWilliamGolding'sTheInheritors',inChatman,S.(1971),330-65.Note:1)Innotes,afterthenameoftheauthorcomesthecopyrightdateinparentheses,followedbyacommaandthepagenumberwithaperiodafterit.2)Thetitlesofarticlesandessaysareenclosedinsinglequotationmarks,andonlythefirstwordneedstobecapitalized.3)Subtitlesofbooksarenotcapitalized.4)Boththenotesandthebibliographyaredouble-spacedwithinanentryandbetweenentries.Ⅲ.ASampleResearchPaperConfucius'MainTeachingMethodsandTheirApplicabilitytoChina'sEducationTodayThesis:Confucius'elicitationmethodofteachingandthatofteachingstudentsinaccordancewiththeiraptitudearestillapplicabletoChina'seducationtoday.Outline:Ⅰ.AbriefintroductiontoConfuciusA.AgreatphilosopherandstatesmanB.Agreateducator.Ⅱ.Confucius'twomainteachingmethodsA.Theelicitationmethod1.Fosteringthestudent'sabilitytolearnbyhimself2.Emphasizingtheteacher'sroleingivingthestudentguidanceB.Themethodof"teachingstudentsinaccordancewiththeiraptitude"Ⅲ.CausesofthediscontinuanceofConfucius'teachingmethodsinmodernChinaA.TheMayFourtheraB.TheCulturalRevolutionperiodⅣ.TheApplicabilityofConfucius'teachingmethodstoChina'seducationtodayA.Problemsineducationtoday1.Feedingstudentswithknowledge2.Teachingstudentsinthesamewaywithoutdiscrimination3.TherootofproblemsB.TheapplicabilityofConfucius'teachingmethods1.Helpingstudentscultivatethehabitoflearninginanactive

204way2.Givingstudentsopportunitiestopractisewhattheyhavelearned3.Improvingthewaysofteachingsoastoarousestudents'interest4.Increasingelectivecoursestomeetstudents'differentinterests5.SettingupmoretechnicalandvocationalschoolsforstudentswithdifferentcapacitiesⅤ.ConclusionConfucius'MainTeachingMethodsandTheirApplicabilitytoChina'sEducationTodayPartⅠintroducesConfuciusasastatesman,philosopher,andeducator.TheauthorclaimsthatConfuciuswasprimarilyaneducatorwhoseteachingmethodsarestillapplicabletoday.Confucius(551-479BC)wasagreatphilosopher,statesman,andeducatorofthelateSpringandAutumnPeriod.Regardedasasageforabout2,000yearsfromtheWesternHantotheQingDynasty,heoccupiesauniqueplaceintheintellectualhistoryofChina.Confucius'philosophyhasmuchtodowiththewayofgovernment.Hewasgreatlyconcernedwithbuildingawell-governedstate,inwhichharmonybetweentheindividualandthesocietyprevailed.Toachievethisideal,Confuciusadvocatedthatmoralobligationsandproperhumanrelationsshouldbeobserved.Hesaid,"Therulershouldbehavelikearuler,theministerlikeaminister,thefatherfather,andthesonson."Healsoadvocatedthatfilialpietyandbrotherlyrespectwerethetwofundamentalvirtues.Thepeopleshouldbeloyaltotheirruler,andtherulershouldpractisevirtueandoperateforthebenefitofthepeople.Confuciuswasalsoconsideredaphilosopherofethics.Benevolence(ren)isthecentralconceptofhisethicalthought,with"lovingothermen"asitsstartingpointandtherites(li)asitsbasicformofexpression.Beingacoherentandcomprehensivetheory,hispoliticalandethicalphilosophy,knownasConfucianism,hadtremendousinfluenceonChinesethought.Infact,throughoutChina'slongfeudalperiod,fromtheHantotheendoftheQing,Confucianismwasthestatethoughtanddominatedtheintellectualscene.However,itwasperhapsinthefieldofeducationthatConfuciusmadethegreatestcontributionstoChina.JustasFengYoulanpointsout,"Confuciuswas,inshort,primarilyaneducator."Confuciusdevotednearlyfiftyyearstoteachingandformulatedasystematicandprofoundtheoryofeducation.HewasthefirstpublicteacherinChinesehistorywhomadeteachingaprofession,andthushepopularizededucation.HewasthefirstinChinawhoopenlydeclaredthat"inteachingthereshouldbenoclassdistinction",andopenedthedoorsofeducationtoall.HewasalsothefirstinChina,who,"after

205editingandcompilingtheantiquatedbooksandknowledgeoftheChinesepeopleintotheSixClassics(Odes,History,Rites,Music,Changes,andSpringandAutumn)toserveastextsforteaching,proceededtoformulateapedagogicalsystemoftheSixArts(propriety,music,archery,charioteering,readingandarithmetic)whichcombinedvirtuewithintellectandmentalwithphysicalcultivation."Some3,000pupilsflockedtohimfromallpartsofthecountrytoseekhisinstruction,andamongthemaboutseventy-twobecamesteepedintheSixArts.Confucius'immediatesuccessasateacherwasremarkable."Heproducedsomeableenvoys,efficientadministrators,respectedcounsellors,andinfluentialteachers."Andhislong-rangesuccessasateacherwasevengreater.ToallChinesefortwoandahalfthousandyearshewas"theMaster".OfallConfucius'educationalideas,themostfamousandadvancedwerehisteachingmethods,whichareapplicableeventomoderneducation.PartⅡHistwomainteachingmethodsweretheelicitationmethodofteachingandthatof"teachingstudentsinaccordancewiththeiraptitude",bothofwhichwerefirstadvocatedbyhim.PartⅡ,A,1Thispartcontains7paragraphs,discussingindetailConfucius'wayofteachingbyelicitation.Inhislongcareerofteaching,Confuciusbelievedthatlearningshouldbeaprocessofexploringandunderstandingofone'sowninitiative,soitwasveryimportantforthestudentstolearnbythemselves.Theroleoftheteacherwastoguide,tosuperviseand,aboveall,toinduceandinitiatelearningonthepartofthelearner....PartⅡ,A,2Ofcourse,learningbythestudentsthemselvesdoesnotmeanthattheteachersarenolongernecessary.Actually,inConfucius'elicitationmethodofteaching,greatemphasiswaslaidontheteachers'roleinguidingstudentsinthecourseofstudy.Asagoodteacher,Confuciuswasskilfulinhelpingandencouraginghisstudentstolearnbythemselves.Whenadiscipleraisedaquestion,Confuciusseldomofferedareadyanswer,butdroppedahintoraskedaquestioninreply,leavingtheanswertobereasonedoutbythestudenthimself....Confuciusoftenencouragedhisdisciplestoexpresstheirownideassothattheywouldformthehabitofactivethinking.Whenastudentwastootimidtoexpresshisidea,theMasterurgedhimoninamostfriendlymanner,anddidnotcommandhimwiththeseveritywhichusuallycharacterizestheold-styleChineseteacher....Confuciusknewthattheknowledgeateachercouldimparttohisstudentswaslimited,

206sohetriedhardtofosterthestudents'abilityofperception,thatis,theabilityofcognitionbyrelatingnewideastofamiliarideas,theknowntotheunknown,orthesurfacetotheunderlying.WhenConfuciustoldhisstudentsonething,heencouragedthemtoanalyzeitanddeducetheassumptionsbehindit,sothattheycouldunderstandten.So,Confuciusreallyhadmanywaysofhelpinghisstudentstolearnbythemselves.Whatismore,Confuciuswasalsoskilfulinarousingstudents'interestandeagernessinstudy.Itwashisopinionthatonlybymakingstudentsinterestedinwhattheywerelearning,onlywhentheywereeagertolearn,couldtheystudyontheirowninitiative.Ifso,therewouldbenobarrierbetweentheirmindsandtheknowledgetobelearned.Confucius'instructionswerealwaysinteresting,andtheyattractedandheldtheattentionofhisstudents....Tosumup,theteacher'sroleofguidingwastwofold.Onewasguidingthestudenttodobetterintheprocessoflearning,andtheotherwasdevelopinginhimaninterestandeagernessinstudy.Confucius'elicitationmethodofteachingsucceededinbringinghisstudents'initiativeintofullplayandcontributedagreatdealtohissuccessintrainingcapablepeople.PartⅡ,B,1Confuciusrealizedthatstudentsvariedintheirindividualities,interests,capacities,andbackgroundsoflearning,andtheirambitionsandlifestylesalsodiffered.Soasateacher,healwaysaccommodatedtothesedifferencesandusedvariousmethodsinteachingorsolvingproblemsforhisdisciples.Thatwasoneofthereasonswhyhegavedifferentanswerstothesamequestionsbroughtforthbydifferentdisciples....PartⅡ,B,2Inordertoapplytheprincipleof"teachingstudentsinaccordancewiththeiraptitude",theteachershouldknowverywelleachofhisstudents.Thisistheprerequisiteofusingthismethod....PartⅡ,B,3ExamplesaregivenofhisdisciplesofgreatachievementsOwingtohisgreatrespectforindividuality,Confuciusalwaysencouragedhisdisciplestodeveloptheircapacitiesandinterestsfreelyandfully.Asaresult,hehelpedbringupalargegroupofablepersons,eachwithhisownaccomplishments....PartⅢ

207However,rationalasConfucius'teachingmethodsare,theyarenotwidelyusedinChina'seducationtoday.WhatfollowsisanexplorationintothemaincausesofthediscontinuanceofConfucius'teachingmethods.PartⅢ,ASincethefalloftheQingDynastyandtheinaugurationoftheRepublicin1911,Confucianismhasceasedtobetheorthodoxphilosophy,anditnolongerenjoyednationalpatronageandsupport.ThefamousMayFourthMovementin1919markedoneofthegreatestintellectualupheavalsinthehistoryofChina.NewthoughtsandpracticesofallkindsfloodedintoChinafromalldirections.TraditionalChineseteachings,customsandbeliefswereseriouslycriticized,withConfucianismasoneofthechieftargetsforattack....PartⅢ,BIf,intheMayFourthera,onlyConfucius'politicalandethicalideaswereattacked,duringtheCulturalRevolution(1966-1976),allhisthoughts,goodorbad,cameunderviolentattack.InanattempttousurpthesupremePartyleadershipandstatepower,the"gangoffour"launchedtheso-calledanti-Confuciusmovementintheearlyseventies,attackingLinBiaoonthesurface,butaimingatover-throwingPremierZhouEnlaiandotherPartyleaderscovertly.Confuciuswasdenouncedasanapologistofslaveryandthefeudalsystem,andallhisdoctrinesandthoughtswereseverelycriticizedandruthlesslyrejected,includinghisteachingmethods,whichactuallywerequiteadvancedandworthinheriting.Forexample,Confucius'methodof"teachingstudentsinaccordancewiththeiraptitude"wasrejectedaslendingsupporttothepracticeof"educationforthetalented"andtheimplementationofthepolicyofkeepingthelaboringpeopleignorant.Thus,fornearlyseventyyears,Confucianismwasthetargetofindiscriminatecriticism.Itstotalrejectionwasonlytobeexpected.PartⅣWiththeendoftheCulturalRevolutionin1976,Chinaenteredanewera,characterizedbymoderatepolicies.Inthefieldofhistory,ashiftininterpretationbegan.The"gangoffour"werechargedwithhavingcriticizedConfuciuswithulteriormotives,andtheanti-Confuciusmovementwasregardedashavingbeenmisusedforpoliticalends,andhavingbeentoosweepinginitsrejectionofChina'shistoricalheritage.Anatmospherehasbeencreatedinwhichpeopleandthingscanbeseenaswhattheyreallyare.Confuciusandhisideashavebeenreevaluated,andhiscontributionstoChineseculture,especiallythosetoeducation,recognizedandappreciated.InthelightofConfucius'teachingmethods,China'seducationtodaystillhassomedeficiencies.Therefore,thosemethodsaresignificantinpresent-dayChina.

208PartⅣ,A,1ComparedwithConfucius'elicitationmethodofteaching,China'seducationtodayhasmainlythreeproblems.Chinesestudentstodayaregoodatmemorizingwhattheyhavelearnedfromtheirtext-booksorteachers,buttheyarenotinthehabitofformingandexpressingtheirownideas.Theirroleintheprocessoflearningismoreorlessapassiveone.Thisisbecauseoureducationpaysmoreattentiontofeedingstudentswithknowledgethantofosteringtheirabilitytolearnbythemselvesandtothinkindependently.Itisteacher-orientatedratherthanstudent-orientated.Itoftenleadstomechanicalandpassivelearning,withstudentsmemorizingmanyfacts,yetnotknowinghowtousetheirminds....PartⅣ,A,2Today'seducationisnot"teachingstudentsinaccordancewiththeiraptitude,"but"teachingstudentsinthesamewaywithoutdiscrimination,"takingnoparticularconsiderationoftheirdifferentinterestsandcapacities.PartⅣ,A,3Probablytherootofalltheseproblemsliesintheguidingprincipleofoureducation.WhileConfuciuslaidgreatemphasisonthecultivationoftheabilitiesofstudents,today'seducatorsaremoreconcernedwiththeamountofknowledgegiventostudents.Educatedinthisway,studentscanonlyinheritfromthepast,withoutknowinghowtodevelopforthefuture.Asaresult,theymaynotbeabletocontributemuchtotheprogressofsociety.PartⅣ,B,1ThefirstthingoureducatorstodayshouldlearnfromConfucius'elicitationmethodofteachingistoattachgreaterimportancetohelpingtheyoungergenerationcultivatethehabitofactivequestioning,debating,andexpressingtheirownviewsfromtheirchildhood....PartⅣ,B,2ThesecondthingoureducatorstodaycanlearnfromConfucius'elicitationmethodofteachingistogivestudentsmoreopportunitiestoputintopracticewhattheyhavelearnedinclass....PartⅣ,B,3

209Thirdly,inordertobringstudents'initiativeintofullplay,teachersshouldusevariousmethodstoarousetheirinterestinlearning.Nowadaysmoreandmoreeducatorsagreethatitisimperativetoimprovethewaysofteaching,makingthemasinterestingaspossible.Onlyinthiswaycantheprocessofteachingandlearningbecomestudent-orientatedandachievebetterresults....PartⅣ,B4-5AsregardsConfucius'methodof"teachingstudentsinaccordancewiththeiraptitude",atleasttwothingscanbedone.Oneisincreasingthenumberofelectivecoursestomeetdifferentneedsanddifferentinterests.Theotheristosetupmoretechnicalandvocationalschoolsforstudentswithdifferentcapacities....PartⅤConclusionThispaperhasdiscussedConfucius'elicitationmethodofteachingandthatof"teachingstudentsinaccordancewiththeiraptitude",andtheirapplicabilitytoChina'seducationtoday.WhatremainstobepointedoutisthatgreatasConfuciuswas,hewasbornandlived2,500yearsago.Itistruethatsomeofhisteachingmethodsarestillusefultoday,butonlyfollowingwhathedidisfarfromenough.Fortimeshavechanged;sohaveeducationalenvironments.Today'seducatorsshouldnotbesatisfiedwithlearningfromtheancientsonly.Amoreimportantthingforthemtodoistodeveloprationalandfeasibleteachingmethodswhichcanmeettheneedsofthecountry.PuttingintopracticetheprinciplesConfuciusadvocatedshouldnotbethefinalaimofChineseeducatorstoday.Theyshouldnotonlydrawuponhistoricalheritagebutalsoaimtosurpasswhathasbeenachievedinthepast.Onlyinthiswaycanoursocietydeveloprapidlyandoureducationbecomemoreandmoreadvanced.Confuciuswasonlyagreatancienteducator,"Thetrulygreatmenshallbefoundintoday'ssociety."Notes1SebastiandeGeazia,ed.,MastersofChinesePoliticalThought(NewYork:theVikingP,1973)113.2FengYoulan,AHistoryofChinesePhilosophy,Vol.Ⅰ,trans.DerkBodde(Princeton:PrincetonUP,1983)48.3ConfucianAnalects,trans.JamesLeggs(NewYork:DoverPublications,Inc.,1971)305.4ChenLifu,WhyConfuciusHasBeenReverencedastheModelTeacherofAllAges(NewYork:St.John'sUP,1976)36.5Geazia,ed.,112.6DoctrineoftheMean,trans.JamesLegge(NewYork:DoverPublications,Inc.,1971)

210413-14.7TheAnalects,trans.D.C.Lau(HongKong:theChineseUP,1983)53.8Ibid.63;15.9Ibid.167.10Ibid.4111Ibid.2312Ibid.1513Ibid.5714Ibid.7315Ibid.6116Ibid.3.17ConfucianAnalects,trans.JamesLegge(NewYork:DoverPublications,Inc.,1971)147.18TheAnalects,trans.D.C.Lau(HongKong:theChineseUniversityPress,1983)105-07.19Ibid.39.20Ibid.103.21ConfucianAnalects,trans.JamesLegge(NewYork:DoverPublications,Inc.,1971)243.22Ibid.187.23TheAnalects,trans.D.C.Lau(HongKong:theChineseUP,1983)13.24Ibid.45;105-07.25Ibid.97.26Ibid.39.27KamLouie,CritiquesofConfuciusinContemporaryChina(HongKong:theChineseUP,1980)133.28RuthM.BeardandJamesHartley,TeachingandlearninginHigherEducation(London:HarperandRowLtd,1984)178.29Ibid.213-14.30MaoZedong,SelectedPoemsandLyricsofMaoZedong(Beijing:People'sLiteratureP,1986)62.BibliographyAnalects,The.Trans.D.C.Lau.HongKong:theChineseUP,1983.Beard,RuthM.,andJamesHartley.TeachingandLearninginHigherEducation.London:HarperandRowLtd,1982.Chen,Lifu.TheConfucianWay.London:KPI,1986.______.WhyConfuciusHasBeenReverencedastheModelTeacherofAllAges,NewYork:St.John'sUP,1976.Cole,PeterGeorge.TeachingPrinciplesandPractice.NewYork:PrenticeHall,1987.ConfucianAnalects.Trans.JamesLegge.NewYork:DoverPublications,Inc.,1971.Dawson,Raymond.Confucius.NewYork:HillandWang,1981.DoctrineoftheMean.Trans.JamesLegge.NewYork:DoverPublications,Inc.,1971.Feng,Youlan.AHistoryofChinesePhilosophy,Vol.Ⅰ.Trans.DerkBodde.Princeton:PrincetonUP,

2111983.Geazia,Sebastiande,ed.MastersofChinesePoliticalThought.NewYork:theVikingP,1973.Kauchak,Don,andPaulD.Eggen.LearningandTeaching.Boston:AllynandBacon,1989.Lawton,Denis.SocialChange,EducationalTheoryandCurriculumPlanning.HongKong:HodderandStoughtonLtd.,1983.Louie,Kam.CritiquesofConfuciusinContemporaryChina.HongKong:theChineseUP,1980.Mao,Zedong.SelectedPoemsandLyricsofMaoZedong.Beijing:People'sLiteratureP,1986.Raths,LouisEdward.TeachingforThinking.NewYork:TeachersCollege,ColumbiaU,1986.Thomas,RobertMurray,ed.EducationalTechnology.Oxford:PergamonP,1987.Tu,Wei-ming.ConfucianThought.Albany,N.Y.:StateU.ofNewYorkP,1985.Walberg,HerbertJ.,ed.EducationalEnvironmentsandEffects.Berkeley,Calif.:McCutchanPub.Corp.,1979.PunctuationPunctuationhelpstoclarifyandsometimesemphasizethemeaningofasentence.Itisnecessarytolearntouseallthepunctuationmarkscorrectly.    Ⅰ.TheComma(,)    Thecommaordinarilyindicatesapausewithinasentence.Supposeyousaythefollowing:    Whenhecame,Iwasbusycleaningmyroom.    Youpauseafteryouhavesaid"came",andthatiswhereacommashouldbeusedinthewrittensentence.Butsometimescommasarerequiredbythestructureofasentence,evenwherenopauseinnecessary.    1.Acommaisusedinacompoundsentencebeforetheconjunctionorconnective(and,but,or,for,so,nor,oryet):    Heaskedthequestioninaloudvoice,butnooneanswered.    Weweretired,andwedecidedtohavearest.    Comeearly,oryou'llmisstheshow.    Shecouldn'tgototheairporttomeethim,norcouldshesendanyoneinherstead.    Itmusthaverainedlastnight,forthegroundiswet.    Heisaneccentricboy,yetyoucan'thelplikinghim.    Whentwoorthreecoordinateclausesareshort,simpleandcloselyconnectedinmeaning,acommamayjointhemwithoutaconjunction:    Amemoirishistory,itisbasedonevidence.    -E.M.Forster    Thisuseofthecomma,whichisanexceptiontothegeneralrule,issometimesseeninliteraryworks.

212    2.Acommaisusedafteranadverbialclauseorphrase(includingaprepositionalphraseandaparticipialphrase)beforethesubjectofthesentenceorinthemiddleofthesentence:    Whenthebellrang,theteacherdismissedtheclass.    Intheancientpalace,theysawthethronewhereemperorsusedtosit.    Toseetheimportanceofthisrailway,onehastolookatamap.    BornandbroughtupintheSouth,sheisnotusedtoeatingwheat.    Theandience,interestedinthetopic,askedthespeakermanyquestions.    Thecommamaybeomittedafteranadverbialelementbeforethesubjectifitisshortoriftheomissiondoesnotleadtomisreading:    OnhearingthebignoiseIknewsomethingterriblehadhappened.    Inonecorneroftheroomtheyfoundtheinjuredcat.    Thecommaisoftenomittedwhenanadverbialelementfollowsthemainclause:    Iwastryingtoreachherbyphonewhenshewalkedintomyoffice.    You'11beunabletofinishtheworkintimeifyoudon'tstartatonce.    Hefoundthedocumentinoneofthedrawersofhisdesk.    3.Commasareusedtoseparateaseriesofwordsorphraseshavingthesamefunctioninthesentence:    Thelittlegirllikestosing,todance,andtoact.    Shebuysbread,butter,vegetables,andmanyotherthingsfromthissupermarket.    Thecommabeforetheconjunctionmaybeomittedifthereisnodangerofmisreading.    4.Nonrestrictiveclausesandphrasesaresetoffbycommas:    WangLing,whoisthebestsingeroftheclass,willteachustosingthesong.    Hehadtoleavehishometown,wherehehadlivedeversincehewasborn.    Dr.Li,thenewchairmanofthedepartment,willspeakatthemeeting.    Anoldlady,noddingandsmiling,invitedusin.    Restrictiveclausesandphrasesarenotsetoffbycommas:    Theyoungman(whois)talkingwiththeforeignreportersistheinventorofthemachine.    Thisisthehousewherethefamouspoetwasborn.    5.Commassetoffparentheticalelements:    Yourwork,I'msorrytosay,isnotsatisfactory.    Thedirector,infact,hasdoneverylittlework.    Tocallaspadeaspade,theexperimentwasafailure.    Theyhavemanycourses:Chinese,English,Mathematics,History,tonamejustafew.    6.Thecommaishabituallyusedinplacesshowninthefollowingexamples:    Yes,Ithinkso.    No,it'snotverygood.    Sheisthenewsecretary,isn'tshe?    ThedelegationwillarriveonJanuary5,1993.    Hesaid,"TheSummerPalaceislikeafairyland."    "TheSummerPalaceislikeafairyland,"he

213said.    "TheSummerPalace,"hesaid,"islikeafairyland."    Thisfactoryproduced830,000bicycleslastyear.    Indates,acommaisusedtoseparatethedayfromtheyeariftheorderismonth-day-year.Nocommaisusediftheorderisday-month-year:    Shewasbornon24May1979.    Withnumbersover1,000,commasareoftenusedtoseparatedigitsbythousands.Fromrighttoleft,acommaisplacedaftereverythreenumerals:    319,08723,654,085    Ⅱ.ThePeriod(.)    1.Theperiod(fullstop)isusedattheendofadeclarativesentence,amildlyimperativesentence,andanindirectquestion:    Everystudentshouldlearntousethepunctuationmarks.    Learntousethepunctuationmarks.    Theyaskedhowthesemicolonshouldbeused.    Theperiodmarkstheendofasentence.Thenextword,ifyougoonwriting,hastobecapitalizedbecauseitbeginsanewsentence.    2.Theperiodisusedwithmostabbreviations:    Mr.Mrs.Ms.Dr.Ph.D.U.S.A.a.m.    U.K.N.Y.I.Q.B.C.B.A.Bros.p.m.    Incurrentusagetheperiodisoftendroppedfromabbreviations,especiallyfornamesoforganizations,newsagenciesandbroadcastingcorporations:    UNUNESCONATOBBCNBCYMCA    Whenindoubtabouttheuseofperiodswithabbreviations,consultagooddictionary.    3.Threespacedperiods(theellipsismark)indicatetheomissionofoneormorewordswithinaquotedpassage:    Theoriginalpassage:    Thedescriptionsofappropriateusagearebasedonthedictaofrecognizedauthorities;onmyownexperienceasreader,writer,teacher,linguist,editor,andobserverofthelinguisticscene;andoccasionally,simplyonmyownpreferencesandprejudices.    Thepassagequotedwithellipsis:    Thedescriptionsofappropriateusagearebasedonthedictaofrecognizedauthorities;onmyownexperienceasreader,writer,teacher...;andoccasionallysimplyonmyownpreferencesandprejudices.    Threespacedperiodsaresometimesusedtoshowapauseinconversationorfalteringspeech:    "Whatdoyoumean?"    "Imean...well,Imeanyouneedn'tbeinvolvedinit."    Ifanellipsisisattheendofasentence,aperiodisusedafterit.Asaresult,fourperiodsareusedtogether.    Ⅲ.TheSemicolon(;)    1.Thesemicolonisusedbetweentwocoordinateclausesnotlinkedbyaconjunction(and,but,or,nor,for,so,yet):

214    Nooneisbornwithknowledge;knowledgemustbetaughtandlearned.    Ifshemarriedthatman,herparentswouldbeunhappy;ifshelefthim,sheherselfwouldbeunhappy.    Eachoftheabovesentencescouldbebrokenintotwoindependentsentenceswithoutanychangeinmeaning.However,asonesentence,theconnectionbetweenthetwopartsseemscloserthanastwosentences.Tomarktheconnectionofcloselyrelatedsentencesisthemainfunctionofthesemicolon.    Conjunctiveadverbslikehowever,therefore,hence,nevertheless,moreover,thus,otherwise,besides,etc.,shouldnotbeusedasconjunctionstolinktwocoordinateclauses.Theyshouldbeprecededbyasemicolon,notacomma.    Thetripwasnotverywellplannedorprepared;therefore,itwasnotapleasantone.    Sheplannedtogowiththemonthetrip;however,herson'ssuddenillnesspreventedherfromleavinghome.    Busesarealwayscrowded;hencehepreferstocycle.    Theinventionbroughthimfame;moreover,itbroughthimmoney.    Intheabovesentences,commascannotbeusedinsteadofthesemicolons.    Somewritersprefertouseasemicoloninsteadofacommabeforesoandyet,fortheyconsiderthesetwowordsadverbs.    2.Thesemicolonisusedwithconjunctionswhentheclauseshaveinternalpunctuation:    Unfortunately,Wangcouldn'tcome;andhisabsencemadethingsdifficultforus.    Beforehecame,wehadexpectedhimtohelpus;butwhenhewaswithus,hedidn'tdomuch.    3.Thesemicolonisusedtoseparateaseriesofitemswhichcontaininternalcommas:    Onthecommitteearequiteafewwell-knownpeople;forexample,ProfessorZhao,DeanoftheNormalCollege;Mr.Han,editor-in-chiefofthelocaleveningpaper;MissXu,apopularactress;andMr.Hu,DirectoroftheBureauofCulture.    4.Asemicolonmayjoinaclausewithawordorwordsomitted;theomissionissometimesindicatedbyacomma:    FivestudentsfromClassⅢwonprizesinthecompetition;twofromClassⅠ;nonefromClassⅡ.    TherearefourNobelPrizewinnersintheiruniversity;inouruniversity,none.    Chinesestudentsaregenerallymorefamiliarwiththecommaandtheperiodthanwiththesemicolon.Itissuggestedthattheystudythissectioncarefullyandtrytousethesemicoloninwritingwhereitisappropriate.    Ⅳ.TheColon(:)    1.Thecolonisusedtointroduceanexplanation,asummary,oranappositive:    Sheshowedmethebooksshehadjustborrowedfromthelibrary:twonovelsbyJaneAustenandabookonthehistoryofEnglishliterature.    Threecauseshavebeengivenforthefailure:poorplanning,insufficientmanpower,andtheshortageofmaterial.    2.Thecolonmayprecedeaquotationorastatement:

215    MygrandpaoftenmentionsonesayingbyConfucius:"Tosayyouknowwhenyouknow,andtosayyoudonotwhenyoudonot,thatisknowledge."    Atthemeetinghemadeanimportantannouncement:hewouldresignfromthecommitteeintwoweeks.    3.Thecolonisusedtoseparatethehourfromtheminuteintimereferences,tomarkthescoresofgames,toendthesalutationofabusinessletter,andtheintroductroyremarkofaspeakertothechairmanandaudience:    Thetrainleavesat10:45a.m.    ChinabeatJapan3:2inthewomen'svolleyballtournament.    DearMr.Brown:(afterthesalutationofapersonalletterthecommaismorecommon.)    Mr.Chairman,ladiesandgentlemen:(thebeginningofaspeech)    Ⅴ.TheQuestionMark(?)    1.Thequestionmarkisusedafteradirect(butnotindirect)question:    DidyoustudyEnglishliteratureatyourcollege?    Whocleanedtheroom?    Heasked,"Wheredidyouputmydictionary?"    "Whereareyoufrom?"sheasked.    2.Thequestionmarkisusedwhenadeclarativeoranimperativesentenceisconvertedintoaquestion:    Youcleanedtheroomthismorning?    Fiveyuanisenough?    Paytenyuan?    3.Questionmarksmaybeusedbetweenthepartsofaseries:    Didshebuymilk?butter?beef?eggs?    Thequestionmarksindicateastopaftereachnoun,thusemphasizingeachoftheitems.    4.Aquestionmarkwithinparenthesesindicatesthewriter'suncertaintyaboutthecorrectnessoftheprecedingword,figure,ordate:    Theauthorofthisstrangebookwasbornin1078(?)anddiedin1135.    Ⅵ.TheExclamationMark(!)    1.Theexclamationmarkisusedafteranexclamatorysentence,oranemphaticinterjection,oraphrasethatexpressesstrongemotion:    Actnowornever!    Whatabeautifulday!    Howcanyoubelievethatdishonestman'swords!    Help!Help!Aboyhasfallenintotheriver!    "Getout!"heyelled.    Wow!Whatastrangehat!    Theexclamationmarkshouldbeusedsparingly.Mildinterjectionsandmildlyexclamatorysentencesmayaswellbeclosedwithacommaoraperiod:    "Whataniceday,"shesaid.    Oh,don'tbotheraboutit.    2.Sometimestheexclamationmarkisusedafterasloganthatexpressesawish:

216    LonglivethePeople'sRepublicofChina!    Ⅶ.QuotationMarks("...")    1.Doublequotationmarksareusedtoenclosedirect(butnotindirect)quotationseitherindialogueorfromabook;singlequotationmarksareusedtoencloseaquotationwithinaquotation:    "ShallIturnofftheradio?"heaskedhismother.    "Yes,please,"sheanswered.    "Onemayaskwhyparentspermittedtheirchildrentoworkinminesandfactories,"theauthorwrites."Theansweristragic,butsimple.Therewasusuallynothingelsetodo,excepttostrave."    Whydidparentspermittheirchildrentoworkinminesandfactories?Inansweringthisquestion,theauthorsaysthattherewasusuallynothingelsetodo,"excepttostarve."(Partofasentencequoteddirectly)    "Whatdoyoumeanby'evolutionarymechanism'?"oneofthestudentsasked.(Aquotationwithinaquotation)    Indirectquotationsarenotenclosedbyquotationmarks.    Theauthorwritesthatthereasonwhyparentspermittedtheirchildrentoworkinminesandfactorieswasthattherewasusuallynothingelsetodo,excepttostarve.    2.Longquotationsintype-writtenpapersaresingle-spacedandindentedfrombothsides,orfromtheleftonly.Quotationmarksmayormaynotbeused.Iftheyareusedwithapassageoftwoormoreparagraphs,theyareplacedbeforeeachparagraphandattheendofonlythelast;theyarenotplacedattheendsoftheotherparagraphs.    3.Whentwoormorepersonsaretalkingtogether,eachperson'sspeech,howevershortitis,iswrittenasaseparateparagraph,togetherwithreportingverbsandaccompanyingdescriptions.    "Didyougotothezooyesterday?"sheaskedherson,smiling.    "Yes,Idid,"hesaid."Ihadagoodtimethere."    "I'msureyousawthepandas."    "Ofcourse.ButtherewassuchacrowdaroundthemthatIcouldn'tgetcloseenoughtoseethemclearly,"hesaidwithasigh.    4.Quotationmarksareusedfortitlesofarticles,essays,shortstories,shortpoems,songs,etc.,andforchaptersorsubdivisionsofbooks.    ThePeople'sDailycarriesanimportantarticletoday:"ThePresentSituationintheBalkans."    5.Wordswithaspecialmeaningaresometimesputbetweenquotationmarks:    Pointingtoasmalldeskinacorneroftheroom,hesaid,"My'headquarters'ishere."    6.Whenothermarksofpunctuationareusedwithquotedwords,phrases,orsentences,Americanpracticesareasfollows:    Theperiodandthecommaareplacedwithinthequotationmarks:    "John,"shesaid,"I'velostmygloves."    Youshouldreadhisarticleon"NewCriticism,"whichisveryinteresting.    Thecolonandthesemicolonareplacedoutsidethequotationmarks:    Firsthetalkedabout"NewCriticism";thenhediscussed

217"postmodernism."    Thedictionarygivesabriefexplanationof"postmodernism":astyleofbuilding,decoration,art,etc.,whichusesanunusualmixingofoldandnewforms.    Thedash,thequestionmark,andtheexclamationmarkareplacedwithinthequotationmarkswhentheyareconnectedonlywiththequotedwords;theyareplacedoutsidewhentheyareconnectedwiththewholesentence:    Sheasked,"Whatdoesmodernismmean?"Whatisthemeaningof"NewCriticism"?    "Help!Help!"shecried.    Stopcrying"Iwantit"!Ⅷ.Parentheses(())    1.Parenthesesareusedtosetoffparenthetical,supplementary,orillustrativematter:    APLO(PalestinianLiberationOrganization)delegationistovisitChinanextmonth.    BaiJuyi(772-846)wasagreatpoetoftheTangdynasty.    Heisteachingtwocourses(LinguisticsandTheoreticalGrammar)thissemester.    2.Parenthesesenclosefiguresorlettersusedforenumeration:    Thewordrevolutionmeans(1)agreat,suddensocialandpoliticalchangebyforce;and(2)circularmovementroundafixedpoint.    Coordinateclausesarelinkedby(a)acommaandaconjunction,(b)asemicolonoracolon,and(c)adash.    Ⅸ.Brackets([])    1.Bracketsareusedtoindicateeditorialcorrectionsorexplanationsinquotedmatter.    Hewrote:"OnegreatpoetoftheSongdynasty[SuShi]saidthatinWangWei'spoetrytherewaspaintingandinhispaintingstherewaspoetry."    2.Bracketsareusedtoreplaceparentheseswithinparentheses:    WilliamStrunkJr.andE.B.Whitewroteaveryusefullittlebookforstudentslearningtowrite(TheElementsofStyle[NewYork:Macmillan,1972]).    Ⅹ.TheDash(--)    1.Thedashmarksabreakinthoughtorachangeintone:    Iwentthroughalotofterribleordealsinthosechaoticyears-butwhodidn't?    Hemightdomanygoodthingsforthepeopleofthecity-ifhewaselected.    2.Thedashindicatesanunfinishedorinterruptedstatement:    "Myideais-""Youwanttoquit,dont'you?"    "Thisisreally-really-disappointing."    3.Thedashsetsoffaparentheticalelement:    Threecountries-Spain,ItalyandHungary-abstained.    Hisoldproblems-suchasasthmaandhighbloodpressure-arestillworryinghim.    4.Thedashissometimesusedtointroduceafinalsummarizingclauseafteraseriesofnounsthatrefertothesubjectoftheclause:    Poormanagement,insufficientsupplyofrawmaterial,andshortageofskilled

218workers-thesewerethemaincausesofthefailureofthefactory.    Father,Mother,JohnandSusan-allweresurprisedbymyannouncement.    5.Somewritersusethedashjustlikequotationmarksinadialogue:    -Haveyouseenmyhat?    -Itisonthechairoverthere.    6.Thedashissometimesusedtointroducesubheadingsandauthorsafterquotations:    TheGrowthoftheGreenParties    -AGeneralSurvey    Welearnfromhistorythatmenneverlearnanythingfromhistory.    -Hegel    Ⅺ.TheSlash(/)    1.Theslashindicatesalternatives    Thisuniversityprovidesscholarshipsand/orloans.    Thesentencemeansthatthisuniversityprovidesscholarshipsorloansorboth.    Whenstudentsmeetafterthewintervacation,theyoftenaskeachother,"HowwasyourSpringFestival(vacation/lifeathome)?"    2.Theslashisusedtoseparatelinesinshortquotationsofpoetrybeingquotedinrunningtext:    Inthiswell-knownpoemShelleywrote："Bethroughmylipstoun-awakenedearth/Thetrumpetofaprophecy!Oh,wind,/IfWintercomes,canSpringbefarbehind?"    3.Whenfractionsarewritteninasentence,aslashisusedtoseparatethenumeratorfromthedenominator:    Akilometreis31/50ofamile.    4.Sometimestheslashmeans"per":    Rent:50yuan/sq.m.    Ⅻ.ItalicsandUnderlining    Inhandwrittenandtypewrittenpapersunderlininghasthesamefunctionasitalicsinprintedmatter.    1.Titlesofbooks,periodicals,newspapers,plays,longpoems,moviesandoperasareunderlinedoritalicized:    HereadsthePeople'sDailyeveryday.    WutheringHeightsisoneofhisfavoritenovels.    2.Foreignwordsareusuallyunderlinedoritalicized:    Therewasabigkangintheroom.    Didhesay"lecheval?ThatisFrenchmeaning"thehorse."    3.Namesofshipsandaircraftandtitlesofworksofartareunderlinedoritalicized:    IsailedontheChangjiangRiveronboardtheDongfanghongⅡ.    DidyouseeRodin'sThinkerattheexhibition?    4.Wordsorlettersreferredtoassuchareunderlinedoritalicized:    Inthephrase"lookforwardto"toisaprepositionandshouldbefollowedbyanounoragerund.    TheletteruinwordslikeneighbourandfavourisdroppedinAmericanEnglish.

219    5.Sometimesunderliningoritalicsindicateemphasis:    Whatamandoesismoreimportantthanwhathesays.    Whenawriterexaggeratesemotions,hemaybesaidtobesentimental.    CORRECTIONSYMBOLSINALPHABETICALORDERabfaultyabbreviationagrerrorinagreementawkawkwardcapusecapitalletterCEChineseEnglishcolerrorincollocationderrorindictiondivincorrectworddivisiondmdanglingmodifierfcompfaultycomparisonfragsentencefragmentgrerroringrammaridunidiomaticexpressioninccompincompletecomparisonitalItalicize(underline)llfaultyparallelstructurelogfaultylogicmmmisplacedmodiffiermngmeaningunclearnocapunnecessarycapitalletternswnosuchwordnumerrorinuseofnumbersperrorinpunctuationredredundantreferrorinpronounreferencerepunnecessaryrepetitionrun-onrun-onsentenceslslangspmisspelledwordterrorinverbtensevberrorinverbformvoerrorinvoicewwordywwwrongword[]delete

220||startnewparagraph()coloseupspace|_||transpose∧somethingmissing   Bibliography    Bander,RobertG.AmericanEnglishRhetoric.NewYork:Holt,RinehartandWinston,Inc.,1971.    Crews,Frederick.TheRandomHouseHandbook.NewYork:RandomHouse,Inc.,1974.    Ebbitt,WilmaR.,andDavidR.Ebbitt.Writer'sGuideandIndextoEnglish.Glenview,Ill.:Scott,ForesmanandCompany,    1978.    Elsbree,Langdonetal.Heath'sCollegeHandbookofComposition.Lexington,Mass.:D.C.HeathandCompany,1977.    Fowler,H.Ramsey.TheLittle,BrownHandbook.Boston:Little,BrownandCompany,1980.    Gigaldi,Joseph,andWalterS.Achtert.MLAHandbookforWritersofResearchPapers.3rded.NewYork:TheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica,1988.    Hill,L.A.LetterWritingforStudentsofEnglish.London:OxfordUniversityPress,1976.    Hodges,JohnC.,andMaryE.Whitten.HarbraceCollegeHandbook.NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanvich,Inc.,1977.    Hu,Wenzhong.FunctionalVarietiesofPresent-DayEnglish.    Shanghai:ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress,1987.Imhoef,Maurice,andHermanHudson.FromParagraphtoEssay.London:Longman,1976.    Kane,ThomasS.TheOxfordGuidetoWriting.NewYorkandOxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1983.    Lannon,JohnM.TheWritingProcess:AConciseRhetoric.2nded.Boston:Little,BrownandCompany,1986.    Lester,JamesD.WritingResearchPapers.2nded.Glenview,Ill.:Scott,ForesmanandCompany,1976.    Nash,Walter.DesignsinProse.London:Longman,1980.    Robins,Adrienne.TheWriter'sPracticalRhetoric.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,1980.    Yang,Xiahua.CompositionandRhetoric.Hefei:AnhuiEducationPress,1990.