30篇文章贯通六级词汇

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30篇文章贯通六级词汇电话点滴现在，电话已经成为世界上最普通的音频通讯工具，今天的电话较之当时贝尔发明的简陋装置，是无以伦比的精巧和有效，而且，今天使用电话的方式也是贝尔当年不可能预见的……Whenimaginativescientistsfirstsuggestedthepossibilitythatonepersoncouldspeakdirectlytoanotheroveralongdistance,fewpeopletookthemseriously.AmongthefewwhodidwasaScots-born(苏格兰出生的)AmericannamedAlexanderGrahamBell(亚历山大?格拉海姆?贝尔，美国发明家),whowasoneofthefirsttodevelopatelephonein1876.Nowthemostcommonmeansofvoicecommunicationintheworld,thetelephoneoftoday,isinfinitelymoresophisticatedandeffectivethanthecrudeinstrumentdevelopedbyBell,anditisbeingusedinwayshecouldnotpossiblyhaveforeseen.Oneareathatisrapidlyexpandediscommunicationsservice“onthemove”.BecauseAmericaissuchahighlymobilesociety—asocietyonwheels—telephonesincarsandtrucksarebecomingasessentialasthoseinhomesandoffices.Industryofficialshavepredictedthatmobilecommunicationsservicewillsoonbemorecompetitiveinmanyrespectsthantheserviceprovidedbytelephonesthatdonotmove.Anotherarearapidlydevelopingisoverseastelephoneservice.In1927,whenoverseastelephoneservicewasinaugurated(开创)witharadiotelephonecallbetweenNewYorkandLondon,theoccasionwasheralded(宣布)as“thrilling”.Today,manytelephoneusersregardinternationalcallsasroutine,andoverseasservice,

1thankslargelytounderseacables(海底电缆)andcommunicationssatellites,hasundergoneextraordinaryimprovement.Transmissionhasbeenmadeclearer,chargeshavebeengreatlyreducedanddependabilityhasbeenimproved.Overseastelephoneservicehasnowbeenextendedtonearly350countriesandareasthroughouttheworld.Theintroductionofdirectdistancedialingin1951wasoneofthemostsignificantdevelopmentsintheefforttoimprovelong-distanceservice.Directdistancedialingisnotonlyfastandconvenientforthecaller,ithasalsoenabledtelephonecompaniestohandletheextraordinarygrowthoftelephoneusethathasoccurredsincethe1950s.between1950and1973thenumberoftelephoneintheUnitedStatestripled,withtheadditionof90milliontelephones.FortheBellTelephoneSystem(贝尔电话公司)alone,long-distancecallsinthesameperiodhaveincreasedfrom1.4billionto8.5billion,andindicationshaveshownthatlong-distancecallswillcontinuetoincreasesignificantlyintheyearsahead.In1972,77percentofthe8.5billionlong-distancecallsweredialedbythecustomer.Anotherverysignificantdevelopmentintelephoneuseisintheareaofdatacommunications.Hereisanexampleofhowmedicaldataarebeingtransmitted.InasmalltowninthewesternpartoftheUnitedStatesabout300peoplegatheredinthelocalschooltoundergotestsforlungdiseases.Theproceduresfollowedmarkedamajoradvanceindetectingdiseasesbyprovidingalmostinstantaneouscomputerdiagnosisoverlong-distancelines.First,techniciansattheschoolusedtouch-tone

2telephones(按键式电话)tosendvitalstatisticsonthepersonbeingtestedtothecomputer,whichwaslocatedinahospital60milesaway.Theindividualthenexhaledintoaspirometer(肺活量计测仪),whichmeasuresvolumeandrateofairexhalation(呼气),andthesemeasurementswereautomaticallytransmittedtothecomputer.Thecomputerinstantlycalculatedtheresultsandwithintwosecondsrelayedthembacktothetestingcenter.Normally,ittakeshoursorevenweekstoevaluatespirometermeasurements.Byutilizingacomputeranddatacommunications,however,thetimelagisreducedtoseconds.Moreover,peopleinaremotecommunityareputwithinarm’slengthofthemostup-to-datemedicalfacilitiesavailable.Formanypeoplethemostexcitingdevelopmentinrecentyearsispicturephoneservice(可视电话业务).Picturephoneservices,whichwillbecomeavailablecommerciallyatthebeginningofthiscentury,isbeingusedbylargebusinesscorporation;butitwillnodoubtspreadfromtheofficetothehome.Itisalreadyclearthatthenextbestthingintelephoneserviceisgoingtobepicturephonecall.Possiblythemostsignificantresearchnowbeingconductedisintheuseofthelaserbeamintelephonecommunications.Thiswonderfullight,firstproducedbyscientistsin1960,canbeamcontinuouslyandwithextraordinaryintensity.Insteadofusinglighttoseeby,telephoneresearchersarethinkingofwaytouselighttocommunicateby.Inotherwords,theyarethinkingofusinglightasradiowavestotransmittelephonecalls,televisionprogramsanddatamessagesfromonepointtoanother,withtheexpansionofpicturephoneserviceand

3high-speeddatacommunicationsbetweencomputers,presentmessage-carryingcapacitiesmaysoonbecomeinadequate.Ifitturnsouttobetechnicallyandeconomicallysound,thelasermightprovetobeamajorbreakthroughintelephonecommunications.Currentresearchintelephonecommunicationsissoextensiveandchangesarecomingaboutsorapidlythatnoonecanpredictwithaccuracywhatthetelephoneoftomorrowwilllooklike.Butthereisatleastonepredictionthatcanbemadewithassurance:therewillbemoreandmoretelephonesinthefuture,andthewillbemuchbetterthanpresentones.译文:对于许多人来说，近几年来最令人兴奋的进展是可视电话的产生。可视电话将在本世纪初投入商业性使用，当前正为一些大型企业所采用。无疑，它将从办公室扩展到家庭。已经很清楚，可视电话即将成为电话业务中的下一个最好的业务。目前进行的最重大的研究可能是激光在电话通讯方面的应用。这种于1960年被科学家首先创造出来的神奇光线能够以极高的亮度连续发射。电话研究人员不是研究利用光来看东西的技术，而是研究利用光进行通讯的技术。换句话说，他们正在想办法用光取代无线电波，把电话、电视节目和数据信息由一个地点输送到另一个地点。随着可视电话业务的扩展以及计算机之间高速数据通讯的发展，目前的信息传递容量可能很快就难以满足需求。如果证明激光在技术上可靠、在经济上可行，那么在电话通讯中，激光可能成为一项重大的突破。目前在电话通讯方面的研究，内容如此之广，变化如此之快，没有人能准确地预言未来的电话将会是什么样子。但至少可以有一个很有把握的预言：未来，电话的数量将日益增多，其性能也将比现在的电话更为优异。

4HowtoServetheSocietyMoreEfficiently………………………………………………515企业：如何更好地为社会服务企业在运营过程中要占用或者消耗社会资源，甚至带来诸如污染等社会问题。而这应列入其社会成本。拿钢铁公司来说，应该要求钢铁公司安装污染控制设备或者支付相当于因污染而造成的社会成本的罚金，否则钢铁公司就是牺牲了社会，养肥了自己。此外，本文也介绍了管理经济学中的其他重要课题……Oneveryimportantinquiryinmanagerialeconomicsconcernstheinterrelationshipbetweenthefirmandsociety.Managerialeconomicscanhelptoclarifythevitalrolebusinessfirmsplayinoursocietyandtopointoutwaysofimprovingtheiroperationsforsociety’sbenefit.Abusinessenterpriseisacombinationofpeople,physicalassetsandinformation(technical,sales,coordinativeandsoon).Thepeopledirectlyinvolvedincludestockholders(股东),management,labor,suppliersandcustomers.Inadditiontothesedirectparticipants,allsocietyisindirectlyinvolvedinthefirm’soperationsbecausebusinessesuseresourcesotherwiseavailableforotherpurposes(includingairandwater),paytaxesifoperationsareprofitable,provideemployment,andgenerallyproducemostofthematerialoutputforoursociety.Firmsexistbecausetheyareusefulintheprocessofallocatingresources,producinganddistributinggoodsandservices.Ifsocialwelfarecouldsomehowbemeasured,businessfirmsmightbeexpectedtooperateinamannerthatwouldleadtowardmaximizingsomeindexofsocialwell-being.Justwhichbundleofgoodsandservicesas

5wellaswhichdistributionpatternforthebundlewouldmaximizesocialwelfareisacomplex,actuallyunanswerable,question.Itis,however,oneofthemostvitalquestionsfacingustoday.ThetraditionalwayofhandlingthismatterintheUnitedStatedhasbeenthroughtheeconomicandpoliticalsystems.Theeconomicsystemproducesandallocatesgoodsandservicesthroughthemarketmechanism.Firmsdeterminewhatconsumersdesire,bidfortheresourcesnecessarytoproducetheseproducts,andthenmakeanddistributethem.Theparticipants—suppliersofcapital,laborandrawmaterials—mustallbecompensatedfromthesaleoftheoutput.Further,thefirmcompetesfortheconsumer’sdollarwithotherfirmsinthesameandotherindustries.Thisprocessis“natural”inthesensethatitoccursinallhumansocietiesastheydevelop.Adifficultyarisesinthecourseofthisdevelopment.Certaingroupsarelikelytogainexcessiveeconomicpowerpermittingthemtoobtaintoolargeashareofthevaluecreatedbyfirms.Toillustrate,theeconomicsofproducinganddistributingelectricpoweraresuchthatonlyonefirmcanefficientlyserveagivencommunity.Asaresult,theelectriccompanycouldchargehighpricesandearnexcessiveprofits.Society’ssolutiontothispotentialexploitationisrateregulation.Priceschargedbyelectriccompaniesandcertainothermonopolisticenterprisesarecontrolledandhelddowntoaleveljustsufficienttoprovidestockholderswitha“fair”rateofreturnontheirinvestment.Theregulatory(调整的)processissimpleinconcept;butinpractice,itiscostly,

6difficulttooperate,andinmanywaysarbitrary.Itisapoorsubstituteforcompetition,butasubstitutethatissometimesnecessary.Thesecondproblemintheeconomicdevelopmentofsocietyoccurswhenalimitednumberoffirmsserveagivenmarket.Ifthefirmscompetewithoneanother,noexploitation(剥削)occurs;however,iftheyconspire(共谋)withoneanotherinsettingprices,theymaybeabletoobtainexcessiveprofits.Theantitrustlaws(反托拉斯法)aredesignedtopreventsuchcollusion(勾结),aswellastopreventthemergingofcompetingfirmswhenevertheeffectofthemergerwouldbetolessencompetitionsubstantially.Likedirectregulation,theantitrustlawscontainarbitraryelementsandarecostlytoadminister,butthey,too,arenecessaryifeconomicjustice,asdefinedbythebodypolitic(国家),istobepreserved.Thethirdproblemisthat,undercertainconditions,firmscanexploitworkers,solawsdesignedtoequalizethebargainingpoweroffirmsandworkershavebeendeveloped.Theselaborlawsrequirefirmstosubmittocollectivebargainingandtorefrainfrom(戒除)certain“unfair”practices.Thefourthproblembytheeconomicsystemisthat,intheirproductionprocesses,firmsmayimposecostsonsociety;forexample,bydumpingwastesintoairorthewaterorbydefacing(损伤外观)theearth,asinstripmining(露天采矿).Ifasteelmillcreatespollutedair,whichrequirespeopletopainttheirhousesinthreeyearsinsteadofinfiveyearsortohavetheirclothesdry-cleaned(干洗)morefrequentlyortosufferlungillness,themilliscreating

7acosttosocietyingeneral,orasocialcost.Thesteelcompanyshouldberequiredtoinstallpollution-controlequipmentortopayfinesequaltothesocialcostofthepollution;otherwise,thesteelcompanyisgainingattheexpenseofsociety,becausethecompanyisnotpayingitsfullsocialcosts.Additionally,failuretoshiftsocialcostsbackontothefirmresultsinaneconomicallyinefficientallocationofresourcesbetweenindustriesandfirms.Currentlysomeofthepracticesbeingappliedtoavoidthisincludetheestablishmentofemissionslimitsbothformanufacturingprocessesandforproductsthatpollute(forexample,autos),aswellastheimpositionoffinesoroutright(彻底的)closuresoffirmsthatdonotmeetthesestandards.Allthemeasuresdiscussedabove—utilityregulation,antitrustlaws,laborlaws,andpollutioncontrolrestrictions—areexamplesofactionstakenbysocietytomodifythebehaviorofbusinessfirmsandtomakethisbehaviormoreconsistentwithbroadsocialgoals.Sincethesesocialmeasuresallconstrainfirms,theeconomyoftheUnitedStatescouldbecalledaconstrained?enterprisesystemasopposedtoafree-enterprisesystem.死亡谷死亡谷的名字虽然不好，名声也欠佳，但这里并非只有黄沙和岩石的不毛之地。它是一个风景优美的地方，是许多动植物，甚至人类的家园……DeathValleydoesn’tsoundlikeaveryinvitingplace.Itisoneofthehottestplacesintheworld.Thehighest

8temperatureeverrecordedtherewas134degreesFahrenheit,andthatwasintheshade!DeathValleyinCalifornia(加利福尼亚州)coversnearly3000squaremiles,fromwhichapproximately555squaremilesarebelowthesurfaceofthesea.Onepointis282feetbelowsealevel--thelowestpointintheWesternHemisphere.InDeathValley,pioneersandexplorersfaceddeathfromthirstandthesearingheat.Yetdespiteitsnameandbadreputation,DeathValleyisnotjustanemptywildnessofsandandrock.Itisaplaceofspectacularscenicbeautyandhometoplants,animals,andevenhumans.In1849asmallgroupofpioneersstruggledforthreemonthstogetacrosstheroughland.Theysufferedgreathardshipsastheyandtheirwagonstraveledslowlyacrossthesaltflatsinthebakingsun.Theyranoutoffoodandhadtoeattheoxenandleavetheirpossessionsbehind.Theyranoutofwaterandbecamesothirstythattheycouldnotswallowthemeat.Theyfoundalakeand,beingwildwithjoy,fellontheirkneesonlytodiscoveritwasheavilysalted.Finally,weakandreducedtoalmostskeletons,theycameacrossaspringoffreshwaterandtheirlivesweresaved.Whentheyfinallyreachedthefootofmountains,theyslowlyclimbeduptherockyslopes.Oneofthemlookedbackandsaid,“Goodbye,DeathValley.”Thathasbeenitsnameeversince. DeathValleyisthedriestplaceinNorthAmerica.Yetfarfrombeingdead,itisalivewithplantsandanimals.Theyhaveadaptedtothisharshregion.Inthesaltflatsonthevalleyfloor,therearenoplantstobeseen.Butnear

9theedge,therearegrasses.Fartheraway,therearesomesmallbushesandcactus(仙人掌).Finally,highonthemountainside,therearepinetrees.Whatisnotvisiblearetheseedslodgedinthesoil,waitingforrain.Whenitdoescome,abrilliantdisplayofwildflowerscarpetstheoncebarren(荒芜的)flatlands.Eventhecactusesblossom.Asthewaterdriesupandthehotsummernears,theflowersdie.Butfirsttheyproduceseedsthatwillwaitfortherainsofanotheryear.Atnoononasummerday,DeathValleylookstrulydevoid(缺乏的)ofwildlife.Butinreality,thereare55speciesofmammals(哺乳动物),32kindsofbirds,36kindsofreptiles,and3kindsofamphibians(两栖动物).Duringthedaymanyseekshelterunderrocksandinburrows(洞穴).Asnightapproaches,however,thelandcools,andthedesertbecomesacenterofanimalactivity.Owlshuntformice.Batsgatherinsectsastheyfly.Thelittlekidfoxisoutlookingforfood,accompaniedbysnakes,hawks,andbobcats(山猫).Manyoftheseanimals,likethedesertplants,haveadaptedtothedrydesert.Theyusewaterveryefficiently.Theycanoftensurviveonpoorwatersuppliesthatwouldleavesimilaranimalselsewheredyingofthirst.Humanshavealsolearnedhowtosurviveinthisland.Thenativesknewwhereeveryhiddenspringwas.Theyalsoknewthehabitsofthedesertanimals,whichtheyhunted.Thenatives,andlatereventheprospectors,ateeveryimaginabledesertanimal.Theyateeverythingfromthebighornsheep(巨角野羊)tosnakes,ratsandlizards(蜥蜴).Theywereoftenontheedgeofstarvation,Inautumnthey

10gatherednutsfromthepinetrees.Otherfoodstheyateincludedroots,cactusplants,leaves,andsometimesinsects.Theearlyprospectorsdidn’tknowthedesertaswellasthenatives.ManydiedlookingforgoldandsilverinDeathValley;othersdidfindthepreciousmetals.Thena“boomtown(新兴城镇)”wasborn.Firstitconsistedofminerslivingintents.Thenpermanentbuildingswerebuilt.Butwhentheminefailed,thetownthatwasbuiltuparounditdidtoo.Todaytheremainsofthese“ghosttowns(鬼城(因金矿枯竭而被人遗弃的城镇))”arescatteredaboutDeathValley.意外伤害玛蒂因一次意外事故失去了双腿的功能，但她没有消沉，反而发挥自己的才能，录制了一部介绍残疾人生活的录像，并获了奖。这次事故给了她改变世界的机会，也让她成为一名很好的制片人……Dr.Kaye,Marty’sneurologist,calledita“freak(意外的)”accidentbecausethechanceofithappeningtoa10-year-oldgirlwasalmostnil(零).“Thefactis,”Dr.Kayedroned(低沉地说出),“spinalcord(脊髓)injuriesoccurmostoftenamongmenages18--24.Paraplegia(下肢麻痹)isgenerallytheresultofmotorvehicleaccidents.Medicalscienceisstillinsearchofacure,”shehadnotedwithauthority.Martyhadheardthosewordsfiveyearsago.AtthetimeDr.Kayehadgivenherthebadnews,aboutnotwalkingagain,Martywasnotlistening.Shewasthinkingaboutthefreakaccident.ItallhappenedonaThanksgivingDay,whenshewasjust8yearsold.Martyandheroldersister,Eleanor,hadgone

11totheirbackyardtopickapplesfortheirmom.WhenMartyreachedthetopoftheladder,therottenwoodgaveway.Shetumblednoiselesslytotheground.Therehadn’tbeenpain.Butthen,shenoticedherlegsdidn’tmove.ThelastwordsMartyrememberedsayingwere,“Eleanor,getroom,somethingiswrong.”ThenextthingsherememberedwaslyinginbedintheChildren’sHospital.Thesurgicalwardwasactiveandfun.RespiratorytherapistscameeverydaytoMarty’sbedside.Theytaughthertoblowtheharmonica(口琴)sothatshecouldstrengthenherlungs.Occupationaltherapiststaughthertomakebirdhousesandbelts.Herfavoritetherapist,Laura,wasaphysicaltherapist(理疗师).ShetaughtMarrytouseawheelchairandtowheeldownsteps.Afterjust3months,Marryhadgonehome.Hermomhadthehouserefitted,andaramp(斜坡)hadreplacedthefrontsteps.Martyplayedchess,swam,wenttoschool,andevenrodehorse.Shewasthesamegirlshealwayswas;itwasthepeoplewhohadchanged.Theysaidthingslike,“whynotgetanelectricwheelchair,dear”,towhichMartyalwayswanttedtosay,“what’swrongwithwheelingmyownchair?”Andtheyalwaystriedtopushherchair,evenwhenshedidn’tneedhelp.Couldn’ttheyseeshemanagedjustfine?Thenthereweretheotherquestionslike.“whathappenedtoyourlegs”,towhichMartyusuallyanswered,“IthoughtIstillhadthem,aren’ttheystillthere?”Then

12adultswouldaskher,“howdoyougotothebathroom?”AndMartywouldreply,“Iwheelthere.”TheonequestionMartyrelished(喜欢)was,“howdoyousleep?”Withoutmissingabeat,Martywouldshootback,“likeababy,justfine,thanks.”Atfirstshewouldanswerseriously,“Ihaveaspinalcordinjury”,andpatientlyexplain,“Iuseaslidingboardtogetintobed,thenIliedown.”Butafter5years,shewastiredofthequestions.Soshejustmadeup(捏造)answers.“Peoplearejustcurious,Marty”,hermotherwouldexplain.“Itwouldn’thurttobeniceandgivearealexplanation.”“Mom,Idon’twanttoaskalotofquestionstopeoplewhowalk,whydotheyallaskmequestions?”“JusttrytobeniceMarty,afterallyouarearolemodelforothersinwheelchairs,”washermom’susualreply.“Ijustwanttorollmywheelchairinpeace,Idon’twanttobearolemodel.”Martywouldshootback.Eventhoughsheresentedthequestions,Martydidwantpeopletocomprehendwhatlifewaslikeinawheelchair.Shedidn’twantpity；shejustwantedpeopletofeelcomfortablearoundher.Shehatedfeelinglikesomealieninametalspaceshipwhowasvisitingfromanotherplanet.“Well,I’vetriedtoexplain,andthatgetsnowhere”,Martygrumbledtoherbestfriend,Sasha,whohadasisteralsoinawheelchair.“PeoplestilllookatmelikeI’msickorweird(怪异的)．”Sashathoughtforaminuteaboutwhatherfriendhadsaid.Shehadasuddeninspiration.“Hey,Iknow,whynotmakeavideoaboutwhatit’sliketobeinawheelchair?Ihaveavideo

13camera,andwecouldwriteascript(剧本),youandme.Whatdoyousay?”Sashaenthused(对…表示热心)．MartyadoptedSasha’sproposal,“Sasha,youareagenius.Wecouldmakeavideoaboutyoursisterandme,andgiveittothepubliclibrary.Theycouldshowittopeoplesotheycouldseewhatpeopleinwheelchairscando.”Bythenextweekend,thegirlshadfinishedtheirscript.Dr.Laurahadevendrawnadiagramofthespinalcord.Itshowedhowmessageswentfromthebraindownthenervesalongthespinalcord.ThemessagesendedwhereMarty’sspinalcordwasbroken.Thatwaswhywhenherbraintoldherlegstomove,theycouldn’t.Thatmessagenevergottothelegs.Itgotasfarasthebreakinherspine.ThevideoalsoshowedhowMartycouldgetintocars,andintoherbed.TherewasevenapartwhereMartygotonherhorse,andtookherdogforawalk,andweededhervegetablegarden,andfixedalampbracketforthefamily.Thegirlsdecidedtoleaveoutthestuff(镜头资料)thatshowedhowshewenttothebathroom.MartyandSashawenttotheChildren’sHospital’swardandfilmedthechildrenwhowereundergoingtreatment.Theywantedotherstoseewhatitwasliketoliftweightsandplaycricket,andlearntodressyourself.Thepreviewwasheldinthecommunitycentereventsroom.AllofMartyandSasha’sclassmates,theirparents,theteachers,andtheschoolprincipalcame.Thekidsfromthechildren’swardandthedoctorsandtherapistscame,too.MartyhadalotoffunactingasMasterofCeremonies(仪式主持人).Sheevenhadanauction(拍卖)ofartworkdonebythechildreninthespinalcordward.Inalltheproceedswas

14$1000thatshedonatedtothespinalcordresearch.Thatnight,Martythoughtaboutthe“freak”accident.Shethoughthowbeinginawheelchairmadeherdifferent,butitalsohadforcedhertomakeherlifespecial.Shehadbeenelectedtorepresentotherdisabledpeopleandeducatethemaboutdisabledpeople.Thefreakaccidenthadgivenherthechancetochangetheworld.Ithadalsomadeherintoaprettygoodfilmmaker(制片人).Hervideowonthechildren’svideoaward,andshegotanother$1000whichshedonatedthechildren’sward.Theappletreeisinbloomagain.SometimesMartywheelstoherbackyardandlooksup.Shedoesnotfeelsad；shejusttriestofigureouthowshecanpickapplesfromthehighestbranch.Ifanyonecanclimbupthattree,it’sMarty.Unit26MediaCoverage…………………………………463媒体报道大众传媒已经成为现代生活不可或缺的一部分。但他们真的可信吗？他们能给我们提供的内容到底有多少是真实的和客观的？我们是否只能成为坐在屏幕前接受欺骗的无助的”目标观众”？Whatdoweexpectfromthosestalwart(坚定的)peoplewhoreportthenews?Apastgenerationofjournalistsprideditselfontheimageofthefearlessobjectivereporter,whosesloganwas,"Justthefacts,Ma’am."Alleditorializingwaslefttotheeditorialspages.Thentheso-called"investigativejournalist"wasborn.Theyblurredthedistinctionbetweenreportingandeditorializing.Investigativejournalismseemstoseeitsjobasamissiontoexposewrongdoing(不道德行为)andcorruptioninhighplaces.

15Ofcourse,onoccasion(有时)thesejournalistsdoagooddeed.AndwiththebirthoftheinvestigativejournalistcametheinevitableNewsShows!They’veblurredthedistinctionbetweennewsandentertainment,oftenseemingtocaterto(迎合)thepublic’stasteforscandal(丑闻)andgossipthanforrealnews.PutthemalltogetherandtheymakeuptheMedia.Themediaholdsvastpotentialforeducationaswellasthebroadeningofindividualviewpoints.Conversely,itoftenhasafrighteningpowertomanipulatethemindsofthemasses.Thislastfactisdemonstratedbymillionswhohavebecomemediadependent.Yesit’strue.Justastherearepeoplewhoarealcohol-dependent.Justlookattheeffectthemediahasonmostpeople’spoliticalviews.Electionsaresometimesindirectlydecidedbywhatthemediapresentstothepublic.Weoftenchoosepoliticalleadersincampaignsconductedinlargepartinthenews,whetherit’sintheformofnewspapersortelevision.It’sallthesame.Andthenastierthecampaign,themorecoverageitgets.Onemainareathatmanypeoplehaveallowedthemediatoshapetheirviewsonisracerelations.BecauseoftheTVimagesofplacesthatfewoftheviewershaveevervisited,andincidentsthattheydidn’tactuallywitnessandarenottrulywellinformedabout,personaldecisionsaremade.Ourfearsanddoubtsaboutracialbias,rapists(强奸犯)andtheirvictims,worldhungerorwhathaveyou(等等),arearousedandfueledbyasensation-hungrymedia.Itisalsothemediathateitherkeepsuspumpedupandexcitedabouttheseissuesorthatletsourexcitementdwindleand

16subside(减退).Butwheredoesitallstart?Wheredoesthefinishedproductcomefrom?Whoisbehinddecidingwhatweallgettoactuallyseeintheend?Whateveritisthatweareseeingandreadingabouttheissuesmentionedabove,andindeedcountlessothers,alldependsonthejudgmentofeditorsandnetworkexecutiveswhoaremoreorlessself-appointed(自作主张的)judgesofwhatisnewsworthyandwhatisnot.Doyouknowwhatitisthatmostoftendetermineswhatgoesonthefrontpageofanewspaperandwhatislostinitsbackpages?Marketing.Marketingjudgmentisforemostinmakingthesedecisions.Secondlythere’seditorialjudgment."Whatisgoodforthepublictohearonthisissue?"Thatisthequestionthattheyaskthemselves,andwhentheyformulateananswertheybelievetobepleasingenough,thentheyputitalltogetherandpresentit.Ihavenoticedthatwheneverthemediafocusessharplyoncandidatesforthepresidency((美)总统职务)orespeciallyfortheSupremeCourt,moreoftenthannotwelearnmoreabouttheirpaststhantheircurrentstanding(立场)onhealthinsurance,abortion(堕胎),thedeathpenaltyorwhathaveyou(等等).Themediatriestosensationalizetheiryouthfulexperimentswithcocaine(可卡因)ortheirtalksbehindcloseddoors,likethesearetrulyimportanterrors.Intoday’spermissive(自由的)andoftenpervasive(有渗透力的)society,itwouldbeanoddthingindeedifacandidateappearedwhodidn’thaveanyfault,wouldn’tit?Anyway,formanyviewers,andespeciallyouryoungergenerations,thefacesthatcomeuponthemediascreensaremorerealandmoreinterestingthanthoseoftheircoworkers,neighborsand

17schoolmates.Ourjudicial(司法的)systemcouldusetuninguptooinvariousareas.Moreandmoreinrecentyearsitseemsthatcontributorynegligence(因受伤一方本身的粗心而造成的意外事故)isnotaviable(可行的)factorinmanylawsuits(诉讼).Takethisonecaseinparticular.Ithappenedsomeyearsback,IdisrememberwhereIreadit.Aguydecidedtoperformastupidstunt(绝技),sohestrappedarefrigeratorontohisbackandran.Itwasatrulyidiotic(白痴般的)thingtodo.Oneofthestrapsbroke,theguyfelldownwhentheweightoftherefrigeratorshiftedonhisback.Therefrigeratornaturallyfellontopofhim.Hegothurt,andhesuedthemanufacturerthatmadethebrokenstrap.Believeitornot,hewon!Believeitornot,ajudgeactuallyawardedhimacool(整整的)millionforhistroubles.Nowonderitisthateverywhereyoulooktherearetortlawyers(民事诉讼律师)advertisingtheirservicestosuepeopleonyourbehalf.Whateffectdoesthatkindofidioticsuithaveonsmallbusiness?Manysmallcompaniescannotaffordtopayoffamilliondollarlawsuitandcontinuetothrive.Onemorereallycuriousthing.Nowadaysitseemspopulartotrytogetgovernmentgrants.Thereisabookthattellsonehowtoapplyandgetthesegrantsforpracticallyanyreason.Thereoncewassupposedlyateamofyoungscientistswhoappliedforandactuallyreceiveda$5000000grantinordertodoastudyoftheeffectsofbacteriaonglobalwarming.Isittrue?Idon’tknow.Iwouldn’tsayitdidn’thappen.Doweknowourworldwellenough?Yesweknowsomeofourworldonafirsthandbasisbutmostofitweknowthrough

18themedia.Isthatasadthingoragoodthing?Isupposeitdependsonwhetherornotthemediadoesaccuratereporting.Forinstance,somepeopleinatelevisionaudiencemaynotknowonesingleAfricanAmerican(非籍美洲人)personally,butheorshedoesknowthemediaversionsofsomeAfricanAmericansandtheirstereotypes(固定的形象)：theup-to-datewise-cracking(说俏皮话的)toughLA(洛杉矶)streetkid(whomightbemaleorfemale),BillCosby(whoisdescribedaskindly,foreversmilingandself-depreciating),orMikeTyson(describedastheviolentandself-destructiveblackmale).Yes,themediamagnatesareundisputedexpertsatplayingoutwithlovingdetail,thepersonaldisasters,heroicrescues,andpettyscandalsthattheyknowtheviewerslove.However,theytakenoresponsibilitywhatsoeverforprovidingtrueinsightsoncredibleissueslikethepoliticsofrace,immigration,education,thenationaldebt,mentalhealth,orunemployment.NowIaskyou.Howdoesthemediashapeordistortourrealityonadailybasis?Dotheyalwaysskimthesurfaceofourreality,soundlybitingintoitatgivenpointsandtakingawaythebitsthatallowusachanceforthinkingaboutcauseandeffect?Arewealwaystobenomorethanhelpless"targetaudiences"sittingaroundatelevisionscreentakinginthehype?Orcanwedosomethingtoinfluencethesteadystreamofimagesandideasthatthemediapresenttous?Unit25Internet………………………………………445互联网

19互联网是计算机网络的国际性的集成，这些网络都理解一个标准的地址命令系统，并经中枢链路网络连在一起。互联网可以提供的服务为电子邮件、远程登陆、文件传送、电子新闻和实况对话等。可以说，互联网是你的计算机通向世界其他地方的窗口……TheInternetisagiantnetworkofcomputerslocatedallovertheworldthatcommunicatewitheachother.TheInternetisaninternationalcollectionofcomputernetworksthatallunderstandastandardsystemofaddressesandcommands,connectedtogetherthroughbackbonesystems.Itwasstartedin1969,whentheU.S.DepartmentofDefence(美国国防部)establishedanationwidenetworktoconnectahandfulofuniversitiesandcontractors.Theoriginalideawastoincreasecomputingcapacitythatcouldbesharedbyusersinmanylocationsandtofindoutwhatitwouldtakeforcomputernetworkstosurviveanuclearwarorotherdisasterbyprovidingmultiplepathsbetweenusers.PeopleontheARPNET(阿帕网，因特网的前身)(asthisnationwidenetworkwasoriginallycalled)quicklydiscoveredthattheycouldexchangemessagesandconductelectronic"conferences"withdistantcolleaguesforpurposesthathadnothingtodowiththemilitaryindustrialcomplex.Ifsomebodyelsehadsomethinginterestingstoredontheircomputer,itwasasimplemattertoobtainacopy(assumingtheownerdidnotprotectit).Overtheyears,additionalnetworksjoinedwhichaddedaccesstomoreandmorecomputers.TodaythousandsofnetworksandmillionsofcomputersareconnectedtotheInternet.Itisgrowingsoquicklythatnobodycansayexactlyhowmanyusers"OntheNet".

20TheInternetisthelargestrepository(宝库)ofinformationwhichcanprovideveryverylargenetworkresources.Thenetworkresourcescanbedividedintonetworkfacilitiesresourcesandnetworkinformationresources.Thenetworkfacilitiesresourcesprovideuswiththeabilityofremotecomputationandcommunication.Thenetworkinformationresourcesprovidesuswithallkindsofinformationservices,suchasscience,education,business,history,law,artandentertainment,etc.ThegoalofyouruseoftheInternetisexchangingmessagesorobtaininginformation.WhatyouneedtoknowisthatyoucanexchangemessagewithothercomputersontheInternetanduseyourcomputerasaremoteterminalondistantcomputers.Buttheinternaldetailsofthelinkarelessimportant,aslongasitworks.Ifyouconnectcomputerstogetheronanetwork,eachcomputermusthaveauniqueaddress,whichcouldbeeitherawordoranumber.Forexample,theaddressofSam’scomputercouldbeSam,oranumber.TheInternetisahugeinterconnectedsystem,butitusesjustahandfulofmethodtomovedataaround.UntiltherecentexplosionofpublicinterestintheInternet,thevastmajorityofthecomputersontheNetusetheUnixoperatingsystem(Unix操作系统，一种多用户的操作系统).Asaresult,thestandardUnixcommandsforcertainInternetserviceshaveenteredtheonlinecommunity’slanguagesasbothnounsandverbstodescribetheservicesthemselves.SomeoftheservicesthattheInternetcanprovideare:Mail(电子邮件),RemoteUseofAnotherComputer(Telnet)(远程登录),FileTransfer(文件传送),News,andLiveConversation.

21Themostcommonlyusednetworkserviceiselectronicmail(E-mail),orsimplyasmail.Mailpermitsnetworkuserstosendtextualmessagestoeachother.Computersandnetworkshandledeliveringthemail,sothatcommunicatingmailusersdonothavetohandledetailsofdelivery,anddonothavetobepresentatthesametimeorplace.Thesimplestwaytoaccessafileonanotherhostistocopyitacrossthenetworktoyourlocalhost.FTP(FileTransferProtocol)candothis.Presently,auserwithanaccountonanyInternetmachinecanestablishaliveconnectiontoanyothermachineontheNetfromtheterminalinhisownofficeorlaboratory.ItisonlynecessarytousetheUnixcommandthatsetsuparemoteterminalconnection(Telnet),followedbytheaddressofthedistantmachine.BeforeyoucanusetheInternet,youmustchooseawaytomovedatabetweentheInternetandyourPC.Thislinkmaybeahigh-speeddatacommunicationcircuit,alocalareanetwork(LAN)(局域网),atelephonelineoraradiochannel.Mostlikely,youwilluseaModem(调制解调器)attachedtoyourtelephonelinetotalktotheInternet.Naturally,thequalityofyourInternetconnectionandservice,likemanyotherthingsinlife,isdictatedbytheamountofmoneythatyouarewillingtospend,Althoughalltheseservicescanwellsatisfytheneedsoftheusersforinformationexchange,adefiniterequirementisneededfortheusers.Notonlyshouldtheusersknowwheretheresourceslocate,butalsoheshouldknowsomeoperatingcommandsconcernedtoeasethesearchingburdenoftheusers,recentlysomeconvenientsearchingtools

22appear,suchasGopher(一种因特网的资源检索工具),WorldWideWeb(WWW)(万维网)andNetscape(Netscape公司的因特网浏览器).WWWisanetworkedhypertextprotocol(超文本协议)anduserinterface(用户界面).ItprovidesaccesstomultipleservicesanddocumentslikeGopherdoesbutismoreambitiousinitsmethod.AjumptootherInternetservicecanbetriggered(触发)byamouseclickona"hot-linked(热链接)"word,image,oricononthewebpage.AsmoreandmoresystemsjointheInternet,andasmoreandmoreformsofinformationcanbeconvertedtodigitalform,theamountofstuffavailabletoInternetuserscontinuestogrow.Atsomepointsverysoonafterthenationwide(andlaterworldwide)Internetstartedtogrow,peoplebegantotreattheNetasacommunity,withitsowntraditionandcustoms.Forexample,somebodywouldaskaquestioninaconference,andacompletestrangerwouldsendbackananswer:afterthesamequestionwererepeatedseveraltimebypeoplewhohadn’tseentheoriginalanswers,somebodyelsegatheredlistof"frequentlyaskedquestions(常见问题，简称FAQ)"andplaceditwherenewcomerscouldfindit.SowecansaythattheInternetisyourPC’swindowtotherestoftheworld.