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本篇包括人卫第四版Unit3B,Unit4A,5A,8A,10A,12AB,13A等七篇课文Unit3TextBTheOtherSideofAntibiotics抗生素的另一面Antibioticshaveeliminatedorcontrolledsomanyinfectiousdiseasesthatvirtuallyeveryonehasbenefitedfromtheiruseatonetimeoranother.Evenwithoutsuchpersonalexperience,however,onewouldhavetobeisolatedindeedtobeunawareofthevirtues,realandspeculative,ofthese“miracle”drugs1.TheAmericanpress,radio,andtelevisionhavedoneagoodjobofreportingthetrulyremarkablestoryofsuccessesinthechemicalwarongerms.What′smore,anyshortcomingsontheirparthavebeenmorethanmadeupforbytheaggressivepublicrelationsactivityofthepharmaceuticalcompanieswhichmanufactureandsellantibiotics.抗生素可以消除或控制很多种感染疾病,以致几乎每人生病时都习惯于使用它而受益,但是如果一个人没有这样的亲身经历,他必定是离群索居才会不知道这些“特效药物”或真实或推测的优点。美国的出版物、电台或电视台用大量的篇幅报道了有关对细菌的化学战中获得的这些显著功绩。而它的缺点却被生产和销售抗生素的制药公司通过公关活动掩藏了。Incomparison,theinadequaciesandpotentialdangersoftheseremarkabledrugsaremuchlesswidelyknown.Andthelackofsuchknowledgecanbebad,especiallyifitleadspatientstopressuretheirdoctorsintoprescribingantibioticswhensuchmedicationisn’treallyneeded,orleadsthemtoswitchdoctorsuntiltheyfindonewhois,sotospeak,antibiotics-minded2.相比而言,使用这些药物的危险性并不广为人知。对这种知识的缺乏将更糟糕,特别是当患者要求医生开处方用抗生素而事实并不需要,或患者频繁地更换医生直至找到一个同意开抗生素处方的医生。Becausethegoodsideoftheantibioticsstoryissoverywell-known,thereseemsmorepointheretoareviewofsomeoftheimmediateandlong-rangeproblemsthatcancomefromtoday’scasualuseofthesedrugs.Itshouldbemadeclearinadvancethatcalamitiesfromtheuseofantibioticsarerareinrelationtotheenormousamountsofthedrugsadministered.Butthepotentialhazards,solittletouchedongenerally,doneedaclearstatement.因为抗生素的好的一面已广为人知,今天抗生素的滥用导致短期或长期问题。我们预先应该知道与抗生素的巨大的使用量相比,它产生危害的例子是少见的。但是,尽管十分少见,需要对这种潜在的危险作一个清楚的说明。Theantibioticsarenot,strictlyspeaking,exclusivelyprescriptiondrugs.Anumberofthemarepermittedinsuchover-the-counterproductsasnasalsprays,lozenges,troches,creams,andointments.Eveniftheseproductsdonoharmthereisnopointwhatsoeverinusingthem.Ifyouhaveaninfectionseriousenoughtowarrantthelaunchingofchemicalwarfare,youneedmuchbiggerdosesoftheantibioticsthananyofthenon-prescriptionproductsareallowedtocontain.严格来讲,抗生素并不全是处方药。许多抗生素被允许作为非处方药(如鼻喷雾剂、键剂、片剂、软膏和乳膏),尽管它们没有危害,也不能随意地使用。如果你患了严重的感染,你就得需要比非处方药所允许最大剂量更大剂量的抗生素了。Over-the-counterproducts,however,accountforonlyasmallpercentageoftotalantibioticsproduction.Itistheprescriptiondosagesthatgivepeopletrouble.然而,非处方药品只是整个抗生素类产品的一小部分,正是处方药物给人类带来了麻烦。
1Thesedrugs—evenallowingforthediverseabilitiesofthemanynarrow-spectrumonesandtheversatilityofthebroad-spectrumones—arenotthecure-allstheyoftenarebilledasbeing.Therearewidegapsintheirabilitytomastercontagiousdiseases.Suchimportantinfectionsasmumps,measles,commoncolds,influenza,andinfectioushepatitisstillawaitconquest.Allarevirusinfectionsanddespiteintenseefforts,verylittleprogresshasbeenmadeinchemotherapyagainstviruses.Onlysmallprogresshasbeenachievedagainstfungi.Manystrainsofbacteriaandfungiarenaturallyresistanttoallcurrentlyavailableantibioticsandotherchemotherapeuticdrugs.这些药物一即使允许最大能力,很多窄谱抗生素和广谱抗生素也并不是如宣传的那样治疗百病。它们的能力与治疗传染性疾病间还存在很大的差距。如腮腺炎、麻疹、普通感冒、流行性感冒和传染性肝炎等严重感染性疾病仍有待解决。这些都是病毒感染,尽管做出了很大的努力,但是在抗病毒的化疗药物的研究上几乎没有什么进展。抗真菌药物的研究上只取得一点小成就。很多细菌和真菌对现有的抗生素和其他化疗药物具有耐药性。Somemicroorganismsoriginallysensitivetotheactionofantibiotics,especiallystaphylococcus,havedevelopedresistantstrains.Thisacquiredresistanceimposesonthelongrangevalueofthedrugsaveryimportantlimitation,whichisnotadequatelymetbythefrequentintroductionofnewantimicrobialagentstocombattheproblem.一些原来对抗生素敏感的细菌,特别是葡萄球菌现在也产生了耐药性,这些获得的耐药性对药物的长期使用产生重要的限制,频繁引人新的抗菌药物也不能完全解决这个问题。Ithasbeenprettywellestablishedthattheincreaseinstrainsofbacteriaresistanttoanantibioticcorrelatesdirectlywiththedurationandextentofuseofthatantibioticinagivenlocation.Inonehospitalasurveyshowedthat,beforeerythromycinhadbeenwidelyusedthere,allstrainsofstaphylococcitakenfrompatientsandpersonnelweresensitivetoitsaction.Whenthehospitalstartedextensiveuseoferythromycin,however,resistantstaphylococcusstrainsbegantoappear.现已经确定,在一些地区,抗生素广泛和长期的使用与细菌耐药性增加有直接的相互关系。某医院调查显示,在红霉素广泛使用以前,所有从病人身上取出的葡萄球菌都对红霉素敏感.然而,自从医院开始广泛应用红霉素以来,耐药葡萄球菌菌株开始出现。Thedevelopmentofbacterialresistancecanbeminimizedbyamorediscriminatinguseofantibiotics,andthepersontakingthedrugcanhelphere.Whenanantibioticmustbeused,thebestwaytopreventthedevelopmentofresistanceistowipeouttheinfectionasrapidlyandthoroughlyaspossible.Ideally,thisrequiresabactericidaldrug,whichdestroys,ratherthanabacteriostaticdrug,whichinhibits.Andthedrugmustbetakeninadequatedosageforaslongasisnecessarytoeradicatetheinfectioncompletely.Thedoctor,ofcourse,mustchoosethedrug,butpatientscanhelpbybeingsuretotakethefullcourseoftreatmentrecommendedbythedoctor,eventhoughsymptomsseemtodisappearbeforeallthepillsaregone.Inrareinstancestheemergenceofresistancecanbedelayedorreducedbycombinationsofantibiotics.Treatmentoftuberculosiswithstreptomycinaloneresultsinahighdegreeofresistance,butifpara-aminosalicylicacidorisoniazidisusedwithstreptomycinthepossibilitythatthiscomplicationwillariseisgreatlyreduced.更有区别的应用抗生素可以最大限度地抑制细菌耐药性的发展,使用药物的病人可对此有所帮助。当必须使用一种抗生素时,最好的避免耐药性方法就是尽快彻底地去除感染。这就需要用能杀死细菌的杀菌药,而不是抑制细菌的抑菌药。这种药物必须使用一定剂量,并且一定的时间以完全根除这种感染。医生当然得选这种药,但患者须遵医嘱、使用足够的治疗量,即使在药物吃完以前症状似乎已经消失。少数情况下联合用药可以推迟或降低耐药性的产生。用链霉素单独治疗结核病会导致高度的耐药,但如果链霉素联用对氨基水杨酸或异烟肼将大大降低耐药性。
2Inhospitaltreatmentofsevereinfections,thesensitivityoftheinfectingorganismtoappropriateantibioticsisdeterminedinthelaboratorybeforetreatmentisstarted.Thisenablesthedoctortoselectthemosteffectivedrugordrugs;itdetermineswhethertheantibioticisbactericidalorbacteriostaticforthegermsathand;anditsuggeststheamountneededtodestroythegrowthofthebacteriacompletely.Ineitherhospitalorhome,asepticmeasurescanhelptoreducetheprevalenceofresistantstrainsofgermsbypreventingcrossinfectionandtheresultantspreadingoforganisms.在医院治疗严重感染时,感染菌对抗生素的敏感性在治疗前已在实验室确定,这样可以使医生选择最有效的药物,可以决定使用抑菌还是杀菌的抗生素,并可对能完全破坏细菌生长所需的用量给出建议。无论在医院或是在家里,无菌措施由于避免了交叉感染以及由此造成的生物体传播,从而可以降低细菌耐药菌株的广泛流行。Everyoneoftheantibioticsispotentiallydangerousforsomepeople.Severalseriousreactionsmayresultfromtheiruse.Oneisasevere,sometimesfatal,shock-likeanaphylacticaction,whichmaystrikepeoplewhohavebecomesensitizedtopenicillin.Anaphylacticreactionhappenslessfrequentlyandislessseverewhentheantibioticisgivenbymouth.Itismostapttooccurinpeoplewithahistoryofallergy,orarecordofsensitivitytopenicillin.Verysmallamountsofpenicillin,eventhetraceswhichgetintothemilkofcowsforafewdaysaftertheyaretreatedwiththeantibioticformastitis,maybesufficienttosensitize;hence,thestrongcampaignbyfoodanddrugofficialstokeepsuchmilkoffthemarket.对有些人来说任何一种抗生素都可能有潜在的危险。一些严重的反应可能是由于它们的应用产生的,其中之一就是严重的有时甚至是致死性的过敏性休克,对青霉素过敏的人使用青霉素将很危险。口服抗生素将使过敏频率降低或降低严重性。青霉素过敏或有过敏史者更容易发生。奶牛使用抗生素治疗乳腺炎几天后,其牛奶中带入的极其少量甚至痕量的青霉素也可能足以引起过敏。所以食品药品监督官员采取强有力的措施防止这种牛奶进人市场。Tominimizetheriskofanaphylacticshockinillnesseswhereinjectionsofpenicillinarethepreferredtreatment,acarefuldoctorwillquestionthepatientcarefullyaboutallergiesandpreviousreactions.Incaseofdoubtanotherantibioticwillbesubstituted,iffeasible,orotherprecautionarymeasureswillbetakenbeforetheinjectionisgiven.当注射青霉素是首选治疗方案时,为降低这种过敏性休克,谨慎的医生会仔细询问病人的过敏史及其反应。如过敏史不清楚,医生会用其他抗生素代替或注射前用其他方法检查其是否过敏。Otheruntowardreactionstoantibioticsaregastrointestinaldisorders—suchassoremouth,cramps,diarrhea,oranalitch—whichoccurmostfrequentlyafteruseofthetetracyclinegroupbuthavealsobeenencounteredafteruseofpenicillinandstreptomycin.Thesereactionsmayresultfromsuppressionbytheantibioticofbacterianormallyfoundinthegastrointestinaltract.Withtheircompetitionremoved,antibiotic-resistantstaphylococciorfungi,whichalsoarenormallypresent,arefreetoflourishandcausewhatiscalledasuper-infection.Suchinfectionscanbeextremelydifficulttocure.其他抗生素不良反应包括胃肠道不适,如口腔疼痛、痉挛、腹泻、肛门瘙痒,这种情况在使用四环素类抗生素后经常发生,在使用青霉素和链霉素后也会遇到。这些反应可能是由于使用的抗生素抑制了正常的胃肠道菌群引起的。随着这种竞争的消除,正常存在的葡萄球菌或真菌耐药菌株自由繁殖并引起所谓的超感染,这种感染将更难治疗。Afewantibioticshavesuchtoxiceffectsthattheirusefulnessisstrictlylimited.Theyincludestreptomycinanddihydro-streptomycin,whichsometimescausedeafness,andchloramphenicol,
3whichmayinjurethebonemarrow.Drugswithsuchseriouspotentialdangersastheseshouldbeusedonlyiflifeisthreatenedandnothingelsewillwork有些抗生素有毒性作用,使其应用受到了严格的限制。这类抗生素包括会导致耳聋的链霉素和双氢链霉素,以及会产生骨髓损伤的氯霉素。这些有严重危险的药物只有在生命受到威胁或其他药物无效时才使用。Allthepossibletroublesthatcanresultfromantibiotictreatmentshouldnotkeepanyonefromusingoneofthesedrugswhenitisclearlyindicated.Norshouldtheydiscouragecertainpreventiveusesofantibioticswhichhaveprovedextremelyvaluable.由于有些抗生素疗效确切,因此使用抗生素所带来的所有可能的麻烦也不能阻止任何人用任何一种抗生素,对于被证明是有效的抗生素,人们不会不鼓励它们的使用。翻译1.另一种发现新的抗生素的高难度方法是合理药物设计,即利用有关分子结构的知识来进行全新的药品设计或改进。Rationaldrugdesignisanothermoredifficultmethodofnewantibioticsdiscovery,thatistosay,designorimproveabrandnewdrugbyusingtheknowledgeofmolecularstructure.2.制药工业在探索和开发新药的同时还要对抗现有抗生素不断増长的微生物耐药性,这将是一条漫长的道路。Whenpharmaceuticalindustryexploresanddevelopsanewdrug,itfightsagainstthemicrobialresistancestoavailableantibioticsallthetime.Itisaverylongway.3.应该大力鼓励医生、制药业以及公众态度的转变。必须将抗生素视为一种应被谨慎使用并且仅在真正必需时才使用的宝贵资源。Thechangeofdoctors,pharmaceuticalindustryandthepublicattitudesshouldbeencouragedgreatly.Theantibioticsmustbeviewedasapreciousresourceonlyusedcautiouslyinrealneeds.4.全世界都必须在医学教育的初期就进行关于抗生素的审慎使用及其耐药危险的灌输,并且,这种教育还应贯穿于医学工作者的整个医疗生涯。Thecautioususeofantibioticsandtheirhazardousresistancesshouldbepumpedintothemedicalstudentsduringtheirearlymedicaleducationthroughouttheworld.What'smore,thiseducationshouldpenetratethroughthemedicalworker'swholecareer.5.制药工业必须停止推进非临床使用抗生素的生产,并且,它应该认识到,它将从抗生素的合理使用中获利,因此,应该对为此所作的各种尝试提供财务援助。Pharmaceuticalindustrymuststopproducingthenon-clinicalantibiotics,anditmayrealizethatitwillbenefitalotfromrationaluseofantibiotics.Hence,itshouldofferfinancialaidstoalltheseattempts.Unit4TextATheScopeofPharmacology药理学范畴Initsentirety,pharmacologyembracestheknowledgeofthehistory,source,physicalandchemicalproperties,compounding,biochemicalandphysiologicaleffects,mechanismsofaction,absorption,distribution,biotransformationandexcretion,andtherapeuticandotherusesofdrugs.Sinceadrugisbroadlydefinedasanychemicalagentthataffectslivingprocesses,thesubjectofpharmacologyisobviouslyquiteextensive.总体来说,药理学包括药物的以下诸方面内容:历史背景、来源、理化特性、合成、生化生理作用、作用机制、吸收、分布、生物转化和排泄以及治疗作用和其他作用。由于药物被
4一般性定义为影响生命过程的化学物质,因而药理学范畴显然是极其广泛的。Forthephysicianandthemedicalstudent,however,thescopeofpharmacologyislessexpansivethanindicatedbytheabovedefinitions.Theclinicianisinterestedprimarilyindrugsthatareusefulintheprevention,diagnosis,andtreatmentofhumandisease,orinthepreventionofpregnancy.Hisstudyofthepharmacologyofthesedrugscanbereasonablylimitedtothoseaspectsthatprovidethebasisfortheirrationalclinicaluse.Secondarily,thephysicianisalsoconcernedwithchemicalagentsthatarenotusedintherapybutarecommonlyresponsibleforhouseholdandindustrialpoisoningaswellasenvironmentalpollution.Hisstudyofthesesubstancesisjustifiablyrestrictedtothegeneralprinciplesofprevention,recognition,andtreatmentofsuchtoxicityorpollution.Finally,allphysiciansshareintheresponsibilitytohelpresolvethecontinuingsociologicalproblemoftheabuseofdrugs.然而,就医生和医学生生而言,药理学范畴并没有上述定义那么广泛。临床医生的主要兴趣在于药物对人类疾病的预防、诊断及治疗.或是在避孕方而所起的作用。因而他对这些药物的药理学研究不仅仅周限于某些方面,只要能为其合理的临床用药提供理论根据就行。其次,医生也关注某些化学物质,这些物质虽然不用于治疗,但通常与家庭中毒;工业中毒以及环境污染有关。医生对这些物质的研究当然仅限于一般性了解。对这类中毒或汚污染的防范、诊断和治疗。最后,所有医生都应责无旁贷地为解决药品滥用所引起的社会问题而做出自己的努力。Abriefconsiderationofitsmajorsubjectareaswillfurtherclarifyhowthestudyofpharmacologyisbestapproachedfromthestandpointofthespecificrequirementsandinterestsofthemedicalstudentandpractitioner.Atonetime,itwasessentialforthephysiciantohaveabroadbotanicalknowledge,sincehehadtoselecttheproperplantsfromwhichtopreparehisowncrudemedicinalpreparations.However,fewerdrugsarenowobtainedfromnaturalsources,and,moreimportantly,mostofthesearehighlypurifiedorstandardizedanddifferlittlefromsyntheticchemicals.Hence,theinterestsoftheclinicianinpharmacognosyarecorrespondinglylimited.Nevertheless,scientificcuriosityshouldstimulatethephysiciantolearnsomethingofthesourcesofdrugs,andthisknowledgeoftenprovespracticallyusefulaswellasinteresting.Hewillfindthehistoryofdrugsofsimilarvalue.从医学生和从业医师的特別耑求和一般兴趣的角度来看,什么才是药理学学习的最佳途径呢?只要对其主要学科领域稍加研究便可知晓。以前,医师必须拥有广泛的植物方而的知识,因为他得挑选适当的植物,且将其制备成简单的药物制剂。然而,现在的药物已很少取自于天然植物,而且更为重要的是大多数天然药物已被高度提纯,且与合成的化学药物无甚区别,所以,临床医生对生药学的兴趣也相应减弱。尽管如此,应该激励临床医生了解药物的来源的科学好奇心,这方面知识往往被证明不但有趣,而且有用。他将会发现了解药物的历史同样具有价值。Thepreparing,compounding,anddispensingofmedicinesatonetimelaywithintheprovinceofthephysician,butthisworkisnowdelegatedalmostcompletelytothepharmacist1.However,towriteintelligentprescriptionorders,thephysicianmusthavesomeknowledgeofthephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofdrugsandtheiravailabledosageforms,andhemusthaveabasicfamiliaritywiththepracticeofpharmacy.Whenthephysicianshirkshisresponsibilityinthisregard,heinvariablyfailstotranslatehisknowledgeofpharmacologyandmedicineintoprescriptionordersandmedicationbestsuitedfortheindividualpatient.药物的制备、合成与销售一度都是医生的职责,但这项工作现在几乎全归药师了。不过临床医师要想开出合理的处方,必须对药物的理化性质及其现有剂型有所了解,必须基本了
5解药房业务。若临床医师逃避这方面责任,他肯定用不好药理学及药物知识,从而难以开出适合每位患者的最佳医疗处方。IPharmacokineticsdealswiththeabsorption,distribution,biotransformation,andexcretionofdrugs.Thesefactors,coupledwithdosage,determinetheconcentrationofadrugatitssitesofactionand,hence,theintensityofitseffectsasafunctionoftime.Manybasicprinciplesofbiochemistryandenzymologyandthephysicalandchemicalprinciplesthatgoverntheactiveandpassivetransferandthedistributionofsubstancesacrossbiologicalmembranesarereadilyappliedtotheunderstandingofthisimportantaspectofpharmacology2.药物动力学涉及药物的吸收、分布、生物转化以及排泄等方面。这些因素再加上剂量便决定了药物在其作用点的浓度,进而决定了其与时间成函数关系的药效强度。在对药理学这一重要方面的理解过程中,常常运用到许多有关生物化学和酶学方面的基本原理和物理化学方面的一些基本法则,而这些原理和法则决定着物质在生物膜之间的主动和被动转移及分布。Thestudyofthebiochemicalandphysiologicaleffectsofdrugsandtheirmechanismsofactionistermedaspharmacodynamics.Itisanexperimentalmedicalsciencethatdatesbackonlytothelaterhalfofthenineteenthcentury.Asaborderscience,pharmacodynamicsborrowsfreelyfromboththesubjectmatterandtheexperimentaltechniquesofphysiology,biochemistry,microbiology,immunology,genetics,andpathology.Itisuniquemainlyinthatattentionisfocusedonthecharacteristicsofdrugs.Asthenameimplies,thesubjectisadynamicone.Thestudentwhoattemptsmerelytomemorizethepharmacodynamicpropertiesofdrugsisforegoingoneofthebestopportunitiesforcorrelatingtheentirefieldofpreclinicalmedicine.Forexample,theactionsandeffectsofthesalureticagentscanbefullyunderstoodonlyintermsofthebasicprinciplesofrenalphysiologyandofthepathogenesisofedema.Conversely,nogreaterinsightintonormalandabnormalrenalphysiologycanbegainedthanbythestudyofthepharmacodynamicsofthesalureticagents.对药物的生化生理作用及其作用机制的研究称为药效学。这是一门实验医学,其历史仅可追溯到19世纪后半叶。作为边缘学科,药效学从生理学、生化学、微生物学、免疫学、遗传学和病理学等诸多学科的主要理论和实验技术中吸取了大量内容。该学科的独到之处主要在于其关注的要点是药物的特征。顾名思义,该科目属于动态学科。学生如果仅仅打算死记硬背药物的药效学特性的话,那他将会丧失把整个临床前期医学连为—体的这一最佳机会。例如:利盐排泄剂的活性和效用只有在肾脏生理学和水肿发病机制的基本原理的基础上才能完全理解。换句话说,只有通过对利盐排泄剂的药效学研究,才能最深人地了解肾脏生理学正常和异常两方面情况。Anotherramificationofpharmacodynamicsisthecorrelationoftheactionsandeffectsofdrugswiththeirchemicalstructures.Suchstructure-activityrelationshipsareanintegrallinkintheanalysisofdrugaction,andexploitationoftheserelationshipsamongestablishedtherapeuticagentshasoftenledtothedevelopmentofbetterdrugs.However,thecorrelationofbiologicalactivitywithchemicalstructureisusuallyofinteresttothephysicianonlywhenitprovidesthebasisforsummarizingotherpharmacologicalinformation.药效学的另一分支是研究药物活性和效用与其化学结构的相互关系。这种构效关系是分析药物作用不可或缺的部分,将这种关系应用于现有的治疗药物中往往会促使药品的更新换代。然而,只有当生物活性与化学结构的关联能够为总结其他药物学信息提供基础时,临床医师才会对此产生兴趣。Thephysicianisunderstandablyinterestedmainlyintheeffectsofdrugsinman.Thisemphasis
6onclinicalpharmacologyisjustified,sincetheeffectsofdrugsareoftencharacterizedbysignificantinterspeciesvariation,andsincetheymaybefurthermodifiedbydisease.Inaddition,somedrugeffects,suchasthoseonmoodandbehavior,canbeadequatelystudiedonlyinman.However,thepharmacologicalevaluationofdrugsinmanmaybelimitedfortechnical,legal,andethicalreasons,andthechoiceofdrugsmustbebasedinpartontheirpharmacologicalevaluationinanimals.Consequently,someknowledgeofanimalpharmacologyandcomparativepharmacologyishelpfulindecidingtheextenttowhichclaimsforadrugbaseduponstudiesinanimalscanbereasonablyextrapolatedtoman3.临床医师的兴趣主要集中于药物对人体的疗效。临床药理重视这一点是合理的,因为药物的作用往往因种属的明显差异而大相径庭,并可能由于疾病的作用而发生进一步改而且有些药物作用——诸如对情绪和行为的作用—只有通过人体才能得以充分研究,不过药物对人体的药理学评价可能因技术、法律及伦理道德方面的原因而受到限制,对药物的选择在一定程度上也只得以它们在动物身上所进行的药理学评价为基础。因此,动物药理学和比较药理学方面的知识有助于确定以动物实验为基础的某种新药研制何时才可用于人体。Pharmacotherapeuticsdealswiththeuseofdrugsinthepreventionandtreatmentofdisease.Manydrugsstimulateordepressbiochemicalorphysiologicalfunctioninmaninasufficientlyreproduciblemannertoprovidereliefofsymptomsor,ideally,toalterfavorablythecourseofdisease.Conversely,chemicotherapeuticagentsareusefulintherapybecausetheyhaveonlyminimaleffectsonmanbutcandestroyoreliminateparasites.Whetheradrugisusefulfortherapyiscruciallydependentuponitsabilitytoproduceitsdesiredeffectswithonlytolerableundesiredeffects.Thus,fromthestandpointofthephysicianinterestedinthetherapeuticusesofadrug,theselectivityofitseffectsisoneofitsmostimportantcharacteristics.Drugtherapyisrationallybaseduponthecorrelationoftheactionsandeffectsofdrugswiththephysiological,biochemical,microbiological,immunological,andbehavioralaspectsofdisease.Pharmacodynamicsprovidesoneofthebestopportunitiesforthiscorrelationduringthestudyofboththepreclinicalandtheclinicalmedicalsciences.药物治疗学涉及如何在疾病防治中使用药物。许多药物以强有力的可重现方式促进或抑制着人体的生理生化功能,进而使症状得以缓解或促使病程朝着令人满意的方向转变。相反,化疗药物的治病功能是因为其对人体作用很小但却能杀死或清除寄生生物。—种药物是否可以用于治疗,关键取决于其能否产生预期的治疗效果,同时其副作用在可容忍的范围内。这样,从关注药物疗效的临床医师的观点来看,药物作用的选择性便是其最重要特点之一。药物的活性和疗效与疾病诸方面——生理、生化、微生物、免疫和行为——的联系理所当然地成为药物治疗的基础。药效学便为临床前期和临床期医学研究这种联系提供了一个绝好的机会。Toxicologyisthataspectofpharmacologythatdealswiththeadverseeffectsofdrugs.Itisconcernednotonlywithdrugsusedintherapybutalsowiththemanyotherchemicalsthatmayberesponsibleforhousehold,environmental,orindustrialintoxication.Theadverseeffectsofthepharmacologicalagentsemployedintherapyareproperlyconsideredanintegralpartoftheirtotalpharmacology.Thetoxiceffectsofotherchemicalsaresuchanextensivesubjectthatthephysicianmustusuallyconfinehisattentiontothegeneralprinciplesapplicabletotheprevention,recognition,andtreatmentofdrugpoisoningsofanycause.毒理学是研究药物副作用的药理学分支。它不仅涉及治疗药物,还涉及引起家庭、环境或工业中毒的许多其他化学物质。治疗性药物的副作用应被视为整个药理学的一个组成部分。其他化学物质的毒副作用范围太广,临床医师通常只能将注意力放在预防、确认和处理
7各种药物中毒的基本原则上。翻译1)药物作用于人体的科学叫药理学,研究这门学问的科学家便是药理学家。药理学不是一门能够独立研究的科学,而是与其它学科紧密相关的。药理学家不仅要了解人体内进行的正常反应过程,还应懂得机体功能是怎样受疾病影响的。Thescienceoftheeffectsofdrugsonthebodyiscalledpharmacology,andthescientistswhostudyitarepharmacologists.Pharmacologyisnotasciencethatcanbestudiedonitsown,butthatcloselyrelatedtootherbranchesofscience.Pharmacologistsshouldnotonlyunderstandthenormalprocessesthattakeplaceinthebody,butknowhowthefunctionsofthebodyareaffectedbydisease.2)医生和医学生对药理学的理解和要求没有其定义范畴那么广泛。临床医生主要关心药品药理学所提供的合理临床用药的理论基础,他们的主要兴趣在于药物对人类疾病的预防、这段及治疗,或者在避孕方面所起的作用。Forphysiciansandmedicalstudents,thescopeofpharmacologyisnotsoexpansiveasitscommondefinition.Theclinicianisinterestedprimarilyindragsthatareusefulintheprevention,diagnosis,andtreatmentofhumandisease,orinthepreventionofpregnancy.3)所有医生都应该负起责任解决药品滥用所引起的各种社会问题。药物用得恰当,将是人类的一大福音,用得不当,则可能毁了人类。病人(特别是老年病人)经常性使用一种以上治疗药物的话,往往会发生产生毒性的药物相互作用。Allphysiciansshouldsharetheresponsibilitytoresolvekindsofsociologicalproblemscausedbytheabuseofdrugs.Properlyused,drugsaregreatblessingtomankind;improperlyused,theycoulddestroyhumanrace.Whenapatient,particularlytheelderlyisprescribedfrequentlytotakemorethanonetherapeuticagent,druginteractionsresultingintoxicitywilloccur.4)以前,医师必须具备很广泛的植物学知识,因为他要懂得挑选适当的植物的能力和技巧,并将它们制备成简单的草药。现在,由于大多数天然药物被高度提纯,且与合成的化学药物无甚区别,所以临床医生对生药学的兴趣也相应减弱。Atonetime,itwasessentialforthephysiciantohavebroadbotanicalknowledge,becausetheyhadtopossesstheabilityandskilltoselectproperplantsfromwhichtopreparehisowncrudemedicinalpreparations.5)对药物的生化生理作用及其活性机制的研究叫做药效学,该学科的独到之处主要在于其关注的要点是药物的特征。药效学作为一门边缘学科,大量借鉴了生理学、生物化学、免疫学、病理学等学科的理论和实验技术。Thestudyofbiochemicalandphysiologicaleffectsofdragsandtheirmechanismsofactionistermedaspharmacodynamics,whoseuniquenessliesmainlyinthatitsattentionisfocusedonthecharacteristicsofthedrug.Asabroaderscience,itborrowsfreelyfromboththetheoriesandexperimentaltechniquesofphysiology,biochemistry,immunology,andpathology.Unit8TextAWhatAnalyticalChemistsDo?分析化学家做什么?Analyticalchemistryisconcernedwiththechemicalcharacterizationofmatterandtheanswertotwoimportantquestions:whatisit(qualitative)andhowmuchisit(quantitative).Chemicals
8makeupeverythingweuseorconsume,andknowledgeofthechemicalcompositionofmanysubstancesisimportantinourdailylives.Analyticalchemistryplaysanimportantroleinnearlyallaspectsofchemistry,forexample,agricultural,clinical,environmental,forensic,manufacturing,metallurgical,andpharmaceuticalchemistry.Thenitrogencontentofafertilizerdeterminesitsvalue.Foodsmustbeanalyzedforcontaminants(e.g.,pesticideresidues)andforessentialnutrients(e.g.vitamincontent).Theairincitiesmustbeanalyzedforcarbonmonoxide.Bloodglucosemustbemonitoredindiabetics(and,infact,mostdiseases;arediagnosedbychemicalanalysis).Thepresenceoftraceelementsfromgunpowderonamurderdefendant'shandwillproveagunwasfired.Thequalityofmanufacturedproductsoftendependsonproperchemicalproportions,andmeasurementoftheconstituentsisanecessarypartofqualitycontrol.Thecarboncontentofsteelwilldetermineitsquality.Thepurityofdrugswilldeterminetheirefficacy.分析化学是研究物质的化学特征并能回答两个重要问题:是什么(定性)以及有多少(定量)。我们所使用和消耗的一切都是由化学物质组成的,所以日常生活中了解物质的化学成分是非常重要的。分析化学几乎在化学的各个领域都起着至关重要的作用,比如农业、临床、环境、法医、制造业、冶金以及药物化学。化学肥料中氮的含量决定了其价值。对食物而言,必须分析其中的污染物(比如杀虫剂残留)和必要的营养成分(如维生素含量)。对城市空气而言,必须分析其中的一氧化碳含量。糖尿病患者需检测血糖(事实上,大多数疾病都是通过化学分析来诊断的)。谋杀嫌疑犯手上火药中痕量元素的存在可以证明手枪是开过火的。出厂产品的质量取决于合适的化学成分比例,因此对组分的测定是质量控制中必不可少的一个环节。钢铁中碳的含量决定其质量,药物的纯度决定其疗效。WhatisAnalyticalScience?什么是分析科学?Theabovedescriptionofanalyticalchemistryprovidesanoverviewofthedisciplineofanalyticalchemistry.Therehavebeenvariousattemptstomorespecificallydefinethediscipline.ThelateCharlesN.Reilleysaid:"Analyticalchemistryiswhatanalyticalchemistsdo"Thedisciplinehasexpandedbeyondtheboundsofjustchemistry,andmanyhaveadvocatedusingthenameanalyticalsciencetodescribethefield.ThistermisusedinaNationalScienceFoundationreportfromworkshopson“CurricularDevelopmentsintheAnalyticalSciences.”Eventhistermfallsshortofrecognitionoftheroleofinstrumentationdevelopmentandapplication.Onesuggestionisthatweusethetermanalyticalscienceandtechnology.通过以上描述可以对分析化学这门学科有大致的了解,为更加明确地定义这门学科,人们也有过多种尝试。已故的CharlesN.Reilley曾说过“分析化学家从事的工作就是分析化学”:。这门学科的发展已跨越了纯化学的界限,许多人已提倡使用“分析科学”来描述该领域。在名为“分析科学的课程发展”的工作组所做的国家科学基金报告中已使用这一名词。但是该名词忽视了仪器发展和应用的作用,有人建议使用“分析科学和技术”这一名词。TheFederationofEuropeanChemicalSocietiesheldacontesttodefineanalyticalchemistry,andthefollowingsuggestionbyK.Cammannwasselected.AnalyticalChemistryprovidesthemethodsandtoolsneededforinsightintoourmaterialworld…foransweringfourbasicquestionsaboutamaterialsample:●What?●Where?●Howmuch?●Whatarrangement,structureorform?欧洲化学会联盟曾举行了一次会议来定义分析化学,K.Cammann所提出的如下建议被采纳:
9分析化学提供了洞察物质世界所需要的方法和工具,它回答了关于某一物质样品的四个基本问题:•是什么?•在哪里?•有多少?•是何种排列、结构或形态?TheDivisionofAnalyticalChemistryoftheAmericanChemicalSocietyprovidesacomprehensivedefinitionofanalyticalchemistry,whichmaybefoundontheirwebsite.Itisreproducedinmostparthere:AnalyticalChemistryseekseverimprovedmeansofmeasuringthechemicalcompositionofnaturalandartificialmaterials.Thetechniquesofthisscienceareusedtoidentifythesubstanceswhichmaybepresentinamaterialandtodeterminetheexactamountsoftheidentifiedsubstance.美国化学会的“分析化学分类”为分析化学提供了一个全面的定义,可以在其网站査到,此处摘录部分内容:分析化学探索不断改进的方法,用以检测天然和人造材料的化学组成。此种科学的技术手段用来鉴别可能存在于一种材料中的物质以及测定给定物质的准确含量。Analyticalchemistsworktoimprovethereliabilityofexistingtechniquestomeetthedemandsforbetterchemicalmeasurementswhichariseconstantlyinoursociety.Theyadoptprovenmethodologiestonewkindsofmaterialsortoanswernewquestionsabouttheircompositionandtheirreactivitymechanisms.Theycarryoutresearchtodiscovercompletelynewprinciplesofmeasurementandareattheforefrontoftheutilizationofmajordiscoveries,suchaslasersandmicrochipdevicesforpracticalpurposes.Theireffortsservetheneedsofmanyfields:分析化学家致力于提高已有技术的可靠性以更好地满足社会中频繁出现的化学检测的需求。他们将已证实的方法学应用于新型材料,或回答关于其组成及反应机制的新问题。他们开展研究,探索全新的检测原理,站在了将激光和微芯片等重大发现应用于实际用途的最前沿。他们的努力满足了许多领域的需求:-Inmedicine,analyticalchemistryisthebasisforclinicallaboratorytestswhichhelpphysiciansdiagnosediseaseandchartprogressinrecovery.-Inindustry,analyticalchemistryprovidesthemeansoftestingrawmaterialsandforassuringthequalityoffinishedproductswhosechemicalcompositioniscritical.Manyhouseholdproducts,fuels,paints,pharmaceuticals,etc.areanalyzedbytheproceduresdevelopedbyanalyticalchemistsbeforebeingsoldtotheconsumer.-Environmentalqualityisoftenevaluatedbytestingforsuspectedcontaminantsusingthetechniquesofanalyticalchemistry.-Thenutritionalvalueoffoodisdeterminedbychemicalanalysisformajorcomponentssuchasproteinandcarbohydratesandtracecomponentssuchasvitaminsandminerals.Indeed,eventhecaloriesinafoodareoftencalculatedfromitschemicalanalysis.Analyticalchemistsalsomakeimportantcontributionstofieldsasdiverseasforensics,archaeology,andspacescience.•医药领域中,分析化学是临床实验室检测的基础,此类检测可以帮助医生诊断疾病,绘制康复过程图。
10•工业领域中,分析化学提供原料的检测手段,保证对化学成分要求严格的最终产品的质量。许多家庭用品、燃料、涂料、药品等在出售给消费者前就已经被由分析化学家建立的方法分析检测。•环境质量经常通过采用分析化学技术检测疑似污染物的方法得到评价。食品的营养价值是通过对其中蛋白质、碳水化合物等主要成分以及维生素、矿物质等微量成分的化学分析而得以确定。实际上,甚至食物的热量也经常通过化学分析的方法来计箅的。分析化学在法医学、考古学和太空科学等多个领域也作出了重要贡献。QualitativeandQuantitativeAnalyses:WhatDoesEachTellUs?定性分析和定量分析:它们各自告诉我们什么?Thedisciplineofanalyticalchemistryconsistsofqualitativeanalysisandquantitativeanalysis.Theformerdealswiththeidentificationofelements,ions,orcompoundspresentinasample(wemaybeinterestedinwhetheronlyagivensubstanceispresent),whilethelatterdealswiththedeterminationofhowmuchofoneormoreconstituentsispresent.Thesamplemaybesolid,liquid,gas,oramixture.Thepresenceofgunpowderresidueonahandgenerallyrequiresonlyqualitativeknowledge,notofhowmuchisthere,butthepriceofcoalwillbedeterminedbythepercentofsulfurimpuritypresent.分析化学学科包括定性分析和定量分析。前者解决样品中所存在元素、离子和化合物的鉴别问题(我们感兴趣的仅是一种给定的物质是否存在),而后者要解决测定已存在的一种或多种组分含量是多少的问题。检测样品可能是固体、液体、气体,也可能是混合物。手上的火药残留通常只需要定性的了解即可,并不需要知道残留量是多少,但煤炭的价格则由其中硫杂质的百分含量所决定。Qualitativetestsmaybeperformedbyselectivechemicalreactionsorwiththeuseofinstrumentation.Theformationofawhiteprecipitatewhenaddingasolutionofsilvernitratetoadissolvedsampleindicatesthepresenceofchloride.Certainchemicalreactionswillproducecolorstoindicatethepresenceofclassesoforganiccompounds,forexample,ketones.Infraredspectrawillgive“fingerprints”oforganiccompoundsortheirfunctionalgroups.定性鉴别可能通过选择性的化学反应或者使用仪器完成。当把硝酸银溶液滴加到一份溶解样品中,生成白色沉淀就说明了氯离子的存在。特定的化学反应会产生颜色,指示某一类有机化合物的存在,如酮类化合物。红外光谱可以给出有机化合物或官能团的“指纹图谱”。Acleardistinctionshouldbemadebetweenthetermsselectiveandspecific:●Aselectivereactionortestisonethatcanoccurwithothersubstancesbutexhibitsadegreeofpreferenceforthesubstanceofinterest.●Aspecificreactionortestisonethatoccursonlywiththesubstanceofinterest.对选择性和专属性这两个术语应该做以明确的区分:•选择性反应或鉴别是指可以和其他物质发生反应但对敏感物质显示一定程度的偏好。•专属性反应或鉴别是指仅与敏感物质发生反应。Unfortunately,fewreactionsarespecificbutmanyexhibitselectivity.Selectivitymaybeachievedbyanumberofstrategies.Someexamplesare:●Samplepreparation(e.g.,extractions,precipitation)●Instrumentation(selectivedetectors)●Targetanalytederivatization(e.g.,derivatizespecificfunctionalgroupswithdetectingreagents)●Chromatography,whichprovidespowerfulseparation
11可惜虽然许多反应呈现出选择性,但极少数反应具有专属性。通过许多途径可以实现选择性,例如:•样品处理(如萃取和沉淀)•使用仪器(选择性检测器)•目标分析物衍生化(如用检测试剂衍生化特定的官能团)•色谱法,可达到充分分离。Forquantitativeanalysis,ahistoryofthesamplecompositionwilloftenbeknown(itisknownthatbloodcontainsglucose),orelsetheanalystwillhaveperformedaqualitativetestpriortoperformingthemoredifficultquantitativeanalysis.Modernchemicalmeasurementsystemsoftenexhibitsufficientselectivitythataquantitativemeasurementcanalsoserveasaqualitativemeasurement.However,simplequalitativetestsareusuallymorerapidthanquantitativeprocedures.Qualitativeanalysisiscomposedoftwofields:inorganicandorganic.Theformerisusuallycoveredinintroductorychemistrycourses,whereasthelatterisbestleftuntilafterthestudenthashadacourseinorganicchemistry.对于定量分析,我们通常要知道样品组成的来历(就像我们知道血液中含有葡萄糖),否则在更具难度的定量分析前,分析工作者先需要进行定性实验。现代化学检测系统往往具有较好的选择性,定量检测方法同样适合于定性检测。然而,简单的定性鉴别常常比定量的过程更为快捷。定型分析由无机和有机两个领域组成,前者通常包含于入门式的化学课程中,而后者最好在学生学完一门有机化学课程后再去涉猎。Incomparingqualitativeversusquantitativeanalysis,consider,forexample,thesequenceofanalyticalproceduresfollowedintestingforbannedsubstancesattheOlympicGames.Thelistofprohibitedsubstancesincludesabout500differentactiveconstituents:stimulants,steroids,beta-blockers,diuretics,narcotics,analgesics,localanesthetics,andsedatives.Somearedetectableonlyastheirmetabolites.Manyathletesmustbetestedrapidly,anditisnotpracticaltoperformaderailedquantitativeanalysisoneach.Therearethreephasesintheanalysis:thefast-screeningphase,theidentificationphase,andpossiblequantification.Inthefast-screeningphase,urinesamplesarerapidlytestedforthepresenceofclassesofcompoundsthatwilldifferentiatethemfrom“normal”samples.Varioustechniquesincludeimmunoassays,gaschromatography,andliquidchromatography.About5%ofthesamplesmayindicatethepresenceofunknowncompoundsthatmayormaynotbeprohibitedbutneedtobeidentified.Samplesshowingasuspiciousprofileduringthescreeningundergoanewpreparationcycle(possiblehydrolysis,extraction,derivatization),dependingonthenatureofthecompoundsthathavebeendetected.Thecompoundsarethenidentifiedusingthehighlyselectivecombinationofgaschromatography/massspectrometry(GC/MS).Inthistechnique,complexmixturesareseparatedbygaschromatography,andtheyarethendetectedbymassspectrometry,whichprovidesmolecularstructuraldataonthecompounds.TheMSdata,combinedwiththetimeofelutionfromthegaschromatograph,provideahighprobabilityofthepresenceofagivendetectedcompound.GC/MSisexpensiveandtimeconsuming,andsoitisusedonlywhennecessary.Followingtheidentificationphase,somecompoundsmustbepreciselyquantifiedsincetheymaynormallybepresentatlowlevels,forexample,fromfood,pharmaceuticalpreparations,orendogenoussteroids,andelevatedlevelsmustbeconfirmed.Thisisdoneusingquantitativetechniquessuchasspectrophotometryorgaschromatography.比较定性分析和定量分析,我们不妨以奥林匹克运动会对违禁药物的检验为例了解分析过程的步骤。禁止药物目录中包含了大约500种不同的活性成分:兴奋剂类、类固醇,β阻断剂、利尿剂、麻醉剂、止痛剂、局部麻醉剂和镇静剂。有些只有以代谢物的形式才能被检
12测。许多运动员必须快速被检测,对每个人做细致的定量分析是不可行的。分析过程中有三个阶段:快速筛选期、鉴别期以及可能需要的定量期。在快速筛选期,对尿样进行快速检测,找出其中区别于正常样品的各类组分,所使用的技术包括免疫分析、气相色谱及液相色谱。大约5%的样品会检测出未知化合物,不论这些物质被禁止与否,都需要做进一步鉴别。在筛选过程中显示出可疑情况的样品,需要根据已检出化合物的性质进行新一轮的处理过程(可能水解、萃取或衍生化),然后使用高选择性的气相色谱一质谱联用技术(GC/MS)对该化合物进行鉴定。在该技术中,复杂混合物通过气相色谱得到分离,然后再通过可提供化合物的分子结构信息的质谱进行检测。结合质谱数据和气相色谱的洗脱时间,我们对确认给定的待测化合物的存在就有更大的把握。GC/MS昂贵、费时,因此在必要时才会使用。经过鉴定阶段以后,一些化合物需要准确定量。这些可能源于如食物、药品或内源性类固醇的化合物,在正常情况下即以很低的浓度存在的水平也需要确定。这可以通过分光光度法或气相色谱等定量技术来解决。翻译1)分析化学的核心任务在于解决两个问题:一个是有什么;另一个是有多少。也就是定性分析和定量分析。定性分析是指鉴别所含的物质而定量分析是测定物质的准确含量。Analyticalchemistryaimstoresolvetwoquestions:whatitisandhowmuchitis,thatisqualitativeanalysisandquantitativeanalysis.Qualitativeanalysisistoidentifytheelements,ionsandcompoundscontainedinasamplewhilequantitativeanalysisistodeterminetheexactquantity.2)分析化学的发展已经超出了化学的边界,因此有人提议用分析科学来描述这个领域。但是,该名词忽视了仪器发展和应用的作用,有人建议使用“分析科学和技术”这一名词。Analyticalchemistryhasexpandedbeyondtheboundsofjustchemistry,andmanyhaveadvocatedusingthenameanalyticalsciencetodescribethefield.Eventhistermfallsshortofrecognitionoftheroleofinstrumentationdevelopmentandapplication.Onesuggestionisthatweusethetermanalyticalscienceandtechnology.3)分析化学家致力于提高已有技术的可靠性以更好的满足社会中频繁出现的化学检测的需求。他们将已证实的方法学应用于新型材料,或回答关于其组成及反应机理的新问题。Analyticalchemistsworktoimprovethereliabilityofexistingtechniquestomeetthedemandsforbetterchemicalmeasurementswhichariseconstantlyinoursociety.Theyadoptprovenmethodologiestonewkindsofmaterialsortoanswernewquestionsabouttheircompositionandtheirreactivitymechanisms.4)定性鉴别可能通过选择性的化学反应或者仪器分析来完成。例如当把硝酸银溶液滴加到一份溶解样品中,生成白色沉淀就说明了样品中氯离子的存在。而红外光谱可以给出有机化合物或官能团的“指纹”。Qualitativetestsmaybeperformedbyselectivechemicalreactionsorwiththeuseofinstrumentation.Forexample,theformationofawhiteprecipitatewhenaddingasolutionofsilvernitratetoadissolvedsampleindicatesthepresenceofchloride.Infraredspectrawillgive“fingerprints”oforganiccompoundsortheirfunctionalgroups.5)违禁药物检查的第一阶段称作快速筛选阶段,通常采用气相色谱或液相色谱等定量分析的方法检查出可疑样本;第二阶段使用气质联用对可疑样本进一步检测;最后,应用分光光度法或气相色谱进行准确定量。
13Thefirstphaseinthetestingofbannedsubstancesiscalledfast-screeningphase,inwhichqualitativeanalysissuchasGCorLCisadoptedtotestsuspicioussamples.Inthesecondphase,GC-MSisemployedforfurthertestingofthosesuspicioussamples.Finally,spectrophotometryorGCisappliedforaccuratequantification.Unit10TextATheUnitedStatesPharmacopoeia(1)美国药典(1)TheUnitedStatesPharmacopoeia(USP)—theNationalFormulary(NF)ispublishedincontinuingpursuitofthemissionofUnitedStatesPharmacopoeiaConvention(USPC):Toimprovethehealthofpeoplearoundtheworldthroughpublicstandardsandrelatedprogramsthathelpensurethequalityandsafetyofmedicinesandfoods.《美国药典/国家处方集》的出版是美国药典委员会不断追寻的使命:通过有助于保证食品和药品质量和安全的公共标准和相关计划,提高全世界人民身体健康。ThistextfromUSP-NF,providesbackgroundinformationontheUnitedStatesPharmacopoeiaConvention(USPC),aswellasgeneralinformationaboutthe32ndrevisionoftheUnitedStatesPharmacopeia(USP32)andthe27theditionoftheNationalFormulary(NF27).本课文内容节选自《美国药典/国家处方集》,介绍了美国药典委员会的一些情况以及《美国药典》第32版和《国家处方集》第27版的基本情况。1.THEHISTORYOFUSP-NF《美国药典/国家处方集》的历史OnJanuary1,1820,11physiciansmetintheSenateChamberoftheU.S.CapitolbuildingtoestablishapharmacopoeiafortheUnitedStates.Thesepractitionerssoughttocreateacompendiumofthebesttherapeuticproducts,givethemusefulnames,andproviderecipesfortheirpreparation.Nearlyayearlater,onDecember15,1820,thefirsteditionofThePharmacopoeiaoftheUnitedStateswaspublished.Overtime,thenatureoftheUnitedStatesPharmacopeia(USP)changedfrombeingacompendiumofrecipestoacompendiumofdocumentarystandardsthatincreasinglyarealliedwithreferencematerials,whichtogetherestablishtheidentityofanarticlethroughtestsforstrength,quality,andpurity.ThepublishingscheduleoftheUSPalsochangedovertime.From1820to1942,theUSPwaspublishedat10-yearintervals;from1942to2000,at5-yearintervals;andbeginningin2002,annually.1820年1月1日,11位医生在美国国会大厦参议院会议厅召开会议制定美国药典。这些医师们试图制定一部最好治疗产品的手册,给出它们有效名称,提供制剂处方。大概—年以后,1820年12月15日,《美国药典》第一版出版了。经过一段时间,《美国药典》的性质从一部处方手册转变成了不断增加参照材料的文献标准手册,通过检査手段共同建立品种规格、质量和纯度等标准。后来,《美国药典》出版周期也发生了改变。从1820年到1942年,《美国药典》每隔十年出版一版;从1942年到2000年,每五年出版一版;从2002年开始,每年出版一版。In1888,theAmericanPharmaceuticalAssociationpublishedthefirstnationalformularyunderthetitleTheNationalFormularyofUnofficialPreparations(NF).BoththeUSPandtheNFwererecognizedintheFederalFoodandDrugsActof1906andagainintheFederalFood,Drug,andCosmeticAct1938.In1975,USPacquiredtheNationalFormulary(NF),whichnowcontainsexcipientsstandardswithreferencestoalliedreferencematerials.Today,USPcontinuestodevelopUSPandNFthroughtheworkoftheCouncilofExpertsintocompendiathatprovidestandardsforarticlesbasedonadvancesinanalyticalandmetrologicalscience.Astheseandalliedsciencesevolve,sodoUSPandNF.1
141888年,美国药学会出版了第一部国家处方集,名称为《非正式制剂的国家处方集》。《美国药典》(USP)和《国家处方集》(NF)都得到1906年《联邦食品药品法案》的认可。1975年USP合并了NF,现在NF通过引用相关参考材料收录了辅料的标准。如今,UPS不断通过专家委员会的工作,把USP和NF观发展成为提供以分析和计量科学进步为基础的品种标准手册。有了这些工作和科学的进展,USP和NF确实得到发展。2.USPGOVERNANCESTANDARDS-SETTING,ANDADVISORYBODIESUSP'sgoverning,standards-setting,andadvisorybodiesincludetheUSPConvention,theBoardofTrusteestheCouncilofExpertsanditsExpertCommittees,AdvisoryPanels,andstaff.AdditionalvolunteerbodiesincludeStakeholderForums,ProjectTeams,andAdvisoryGroups,whichactinanadvisorycapacitytoprovideinputtoUSP'sgoverning,standards-setting,andmanagementbodies.2美国药典的管理、标准制定和顾问机构美国药典的管理、标准制定和顾问机构包括:美国药典大会、理事委员会、专家委员会和专家小组委员会、顾问小组以及员工。•其他志愿机构包括:股东论坛、项目团队、和顾问小组,他们以顾问身份给美药典的管理、标准制定和经营机构提供信息或资金。USPConvention—USP'sdirectionandprioritiesaredeterminedbymorethan400Conventionmembersdividedintoninecategories.Eligibleorganizationswithineachmembershipcategoryareinvitedtoappointarepresentative.Conventioncompositionisdeterminedtoensuresuitablerepresentationofthosesectionsofthehealthcaresystemthatareinfluencedby,andinturninfluence,USP'sactivities.ConventionmemberselectUSP'sPresident,TreasurerandothermembersoftheBoardofTrusteesaswellastheCouncilofExperts.TheyalsovoteonresolutionstoguideUSP'sscientificpolicyandpublichealthinitiativesandupdate,asneeded,USP'sConstitutionandBy-Laws.美国药典大会美国药典的方针和重点由超过400位的药典大会成员来决定,他们分为9个类别。下属类别中符合条件的组织被邀请派一个代表。药典大会的组成坚决保证卫生保健体系中的这些部门适当的代表性,这些部门受到药典大会的影响,反过来也影响药典大会的活动。药典大会成员选举USP总裁、财务主管、其他理事会和专家委员会的成员。他们也投票决定指导药典的科学决策、公共卫生措施,如果必要,也更新药典的章程和内部规章。BoardofTrustees—USP'sBoardofTrusteesisentrustedwithmanagementofthebusinessaffairs,finances,andpropertyofUSP.Duringitsfive-yearterm,theBoarddefinesUSP'sstrategicdirectionthroughitskeypolicyandoperationaldecisions.理事委员会药典的理事委员会负责管理药典的业务、金融和财产。在五年任期内,管理委员会通过关键决策和可操作性明确美国药典的策略方向。CouncilofExperts—TheCouncilofExpertsisthestandards-settingbodyofUSP.Itiscomposedof57ExpertCommitteeChairselectedtofive-yeartermsbyUSP'sConventionmembers.ANominatingCommittee,consistingoftheChairoftheCouncilofExperts,theConventionPresident,andtheViceChairoftheNominatingCommitteefortheCouncilofExperts,nominatesindividualswhoaresubsequentlyelectedbythemembersoftheCouncilofExpertstoserveasExpertCommitteemembers.Collectively,theExpertCommitteeChairsandmemberscomprisemorethan500volunteersdrawnfrom50countries.The41StandardsExpertCommitteesareresponsibleforthecontentofUSP–NF,theFoodChemicalsCodexandassociatedpublicationsandorganizedinCollaborativeGroupsfortopicsofcommoninterest.专家委员会专家委员会是美国药典的标准制定机构。由药典大会选举出的57名专家主任委员组成,任期五年。由专家
15委员会主任委员、药典大会总裁以及提名专家委员会的提名委员会副主任委员构成的提名委员会推荐候选人,然后由专家委员会选举担当专家委员会成员。专家委员会主任委员和成员包含从50个国家选择成立500多个志愿者。41个标准专家委员会负责《美国药典/国家处方集》、《食品化学物质集》以及相关出版物的内容,并成立多个协作小组讨论共同关注的话题。AdvisoryPanelstotheCouncilofExperts—TheChairoftheCouncilofExpertsmayappointAdvisoryPanelstoassisttheCouncilofExpertsinreachingscientificdecisionsandimplementingnewUSPdirectivesrelatingtoUSP–NF.ThelistoftheAdvisoryPanelschangesfrequentlyastheworkofAdvisoryPanelsconcludesandnewonesstarttheirdeliberations.Therearemorethan350AdvisoryPanelmemberswhocontributetothestandards-settingactivitiesoftheCouncilofExperts.专家委员会顾问小纽专家委员会主任委员可以任命顾问小组帮助专家委员会做科学决定、实施有关《美国药典/国家处方集》新方针。顾问小组名单随着顾问小组工作的结束以及新的顾问小组的审议工作的开始而经常改变。有超过350个顾问小组成员,他们为专家委员会制定标准作出了贡献StakeholderForumsandProjectTeams—USPhasformedseveraldomesticandinternationalStakeholderForumsandProjectTeamsinthe2005–2010cycletoexchangeinformationandreceivecommentonUSP'sstandards-settingactivities.Dependingonthetopic,astakeholderforummayformprojectteamstoworkonselectedtopics.股东论坛和项目小组美国药典在20052010期间,在国内外成立了几个股东论坛和项目小组来交流信息,收集有关USP标准建立活动的评论。依据这些话题,股东论坛就可以成立项目小组研究有关话题。3.LEGALRECOGNITION法律认可RecognitionofUSP–NF—USP–NFisrecognizedbylawandcustominmanycountriesthroughouttheworld.IntheUnitedStates,thefederalFood,Drug,andCosmeticAct(FD&CAct)definestheterm“officialcompendium”astheofficialUSP,theofficialNF,theofficialHomeopathicPharmacopeiaoftheUnitedStates,oranysupplementtothem.FDAmayenforcecompliancewithofficialstandardsinUSP–NFundertheadulterationandmisbrandingprovisionsoftheFD&CAct.TheseprovisionsextendbroadauthoritytoFDAtoprevententrytoorremovedesignatedproductsfromtheUnitedStatesmarketonthebasisofstandardsintheUSP–NF.《美国药典/国家处方集》在世界各地都得到法律和传统的认可。在美国,联邦《食品药品化妆品法案》(FD&CAct)中明确的“官方手册”就是指官方的《美国药典》、官方的《国家处方集》、官方的《美国顺势疗法药典》或者它们的《增补本》。FDA在《食品药品化妆品法案》的掺假和标示不符条文下可能会按照《美国药典/国家处方集》的官方标准强制执行。这些条文扩展了FDA的权威,它们可以依据《美国药典/国家处方集》的标准禁止某些指定产品流人或流出美国市场。Theidentityofanofficialarticle,asexpressedbyitsname,isestablishedifitconformsinallrespectstotherequirementsofitsmonographandotherrelevantportionsofthecompendia.TheFD&CActstipulatesthatanarticlemaydifferinstrength,quality,orpurityandstillhavethesamenameifthedifferenceisstatedonthearticle'slabel.FDArequiresthatnamesforarticlesthatarenotofficialmustbeclearlydistinguishinganddifferentiatingfromanynamerecognizedinanofficialcompendium.Officialpreparations(adrugproduct,adietarysupplementincludingnutritionalsupplements,orafinisheddevice)maycontainadditionalsuitableingredients.只要与各论中的要求和手册中其他相关部分相符,一个法定品种的统一性就可以确立,正如它名称所表达的。《食品药品及化妆品法案》规定品种在规格、质量或者纯度方面可以有不
16同,而且只要在品种标签上注明可以用同样的名称。FDA要求非法定的品种名称必须和法定手册中认可的名称明确区分、区别开来。法定制剂(药成品、食品补充剂包括营养添加剂或者成品装置)可以包含附加的合适的制剂成分。Drugs—USP'sgoalistohavesubstanceandpreparation(product)monographsinUSP–NFforallFDA-approveddrugs,includingbiologics,andtheiringredients.USPalsodevelopsmonographsfortherapeuticproductsnotapprovedbyFDA,e.g.,pre-1938drugs,dietarysupplements,andcompoundedpreparations.AlthoughsubmissionofinformationneededtodevelopamonographbytheCouncilofExpertsisvoluntary,compliancewithaUSP–NFmonograph,ifavailable,ismandatory.药品美国药典的目标就是让《美国药典/国家处方集》中药物和制剂(成品)各论涵盖所有FDA核准的药品,包括生物药品以及它们的成分。美国药典也开发不被FDA核准的治疗产品的各论,如1938年前的药品、食品补充剂和复合制剂。尽管专家委员会提交开发各论所需要的信息是自愿的,但是如能够提供的话,则必须符合《美国药典国家处方集》各论。Biologics—IntheUnitedStates,althoughsomebiologicsareregulatedundertheprovisionsofthePublicHealthServiceAct(PHSA),provisionsoftheFD&CActalsoapplytotheseproducts.Forthisreason,productsapprovedunderthePHSAshouldcomplywiththeadulterationandmisbrandingprovisionsoftheFD&CActatSection501(b)and502(g)and,thus,shouldconformtoapplicableofficialmonographsinUSP–NF.生物制品在美国,尽管某些生物制品在《公共卫生服务法案》(PHSA)条文中受到管制,联邦《食品药品化妆品法案》条文也适用了这些产品。正因如此,《公共卫生服务法案》下核准的产品必须服从《食品药品化妆品法案》501项(b)条和502项(g)条下的掺假和标示不符条文,因此必须遵守《美国药典/国家处方集》中适用的官方各论。MedicalDevices—Section201(h)oftheFD&CActdefinesadeviceasaninstrument,apparatus,similararticle,orcomponentthereofrecognizedinUSP–NF.ThereisnocomparablerecognitionofUSP'sstandards-settingauthorityandabilitytodefineamedicaldeviceasexistsforotherFDA-regulatedtherapeuticproducts.医疗器械《食品药品化妆品法案》第201项(h)条把装置定义为设备、仪器.、类似的品种或者在《美国药典/国家处方集》中认可的组件。美国药典委员会还没有被认可类似的标准制定权威和能力来定义现存的由FDA控制的治疗产品的其他医疗设备。DietarySupplements—TheDietarySupplementHealthandEducationActof1994amendmentstotheFD&CActnameUSP—NFastheofficialcompendiafordietarysupplements.ThedietarysupplementmustberepresentedasconformingtoaUSP–NFdietarysupplementmonograph.膳食补充剂对《食品药品及化妆品法案》修订的《1994膳食补充剂卫生和教育法案》把《美国药典/国家处方集》提名为膳食补充剂的官方手册^膳食补充剂必须与《美国药典/国家处方集》膳食补充剂各论相符。CompoundedPreparations—Preparationmonographsprovideinformationorstandardsapplicableincompounding.StandardsinUSP–NFforcompoundedpreparationsmaybeenforcedatboththestateandfederallevels,e.g.,ifapractitionerwritesaprescriptionforacompoundedpreparationthatisnamedinaUSP–NFmonograph,thepreparation,whentested,mustconformtothestipulationsofthemonographsonamed.复合制剂制剂各论提供适合调配的信息和标准。《美国药典/国家处方集》复合制剂的标准可以在州和联邦两个级别实施,比如:如果医师开复合制剂的处方,其名称在《美国药典/国家处方集》的各论中,在检查时该制剂必须遵照该名称下的各论规定。4.PHARMACOPEIALDISCUSSIONGROUP’S(PDG)HARMONIOUSACTIVITIES
17Apharmacopoeialmonographforanactiveingredientorexcipient,preparation,orothersubstanceusedinthemanufactureorcompoundingofamedicinalproductgenerallyprovidesaname,definition,description,andsometimespackaging,labeling,andstoragestatements.Thereafter,themonographprovidestests,procedures,andacceptancecriteriathatconstitutethespecification.Forfrequentlycitedprocedures,amonographmayrefertoageneralchapterforeditorialconvenience.ThePharmacopoeialDiscussionGroup(PDG)workstoharmonizeexcipientmonographsandgeneralchapters.Thiswillreducemanufacturers'burdenofperforminganalyticalproceduresindifferentways,usingdifferentacceptancecriteria.ThePharmacopoeialDiscussionGroup(PDG),whichincludesrepresentativesfromtheEuropean,Japanese,andUnitedStatespharmacopeias,andWHO(asanobserver),harmonizespharmacopoeialexcipientmonographsandGeneralChapters.Atalltimes,thePDGworkstomaintainanoptimallevelofscienceconsistentwithprotectionofthepublichealth.34.药典讨论小组的协调活动有关活性成分或辅料、制剂或者其他用于药品制造或复合的物质,药典各论提供了它们的名称、定义、性状,有时候还有包装、标签和贮藏说明。之后,各论介绍了构成执浦准的实验、程序和可接受标准。为了排版方便,对于频繁引用的程序’各论则要参考通则。药典讨论小组的工作就是协调辅料各论和通则。这将减少生产厂家采用不同可接受标准,用不同方法操作分析程序的负担。药典讨论小组由来自欧洲药典、日本药局方和美国药典的代表构成,世界卫生组织也派代表作为观察员,他们协调药典辅料各论与通则。药典讨论小组的工作始终就是维持最理想的科学水平翻译1)《美国药典》自1920年12月出版第一版以后,结果一段时间,它的性质也发生了变化,从一部处方手册转变成了一部法规标准手册。但一直以来,《美国药典》的出版始终在实现美国药典委员会的使命:通过有助于保证药品和食品质量和安全的公共标准和相关计划,提高全世界人民的身体健康。SincethefirsteditionofUnitedStatesPharmacopeiawaspublishedinDecember1920,aftersometime,itsnaturechanged,frombeingacompendiumofrecipestoacompendiumofdocumentarystandard.Eversince,itspublishmentiscontinuouslypursuingthemissionofUSPConvention:toimprovethehealthofpeoplearoundtheworldthroughpublicstandardsandrelatedprogramsthathelpensurethequalityandsafetyofmedicinesandfoods.2)1888年,美国药学会出版了第一部国家处方集,1975年《美国药典》合并了《国家处方集》。如今,美国药典委员会通过专家委员会的工作不断把《美国药典/国家处方集》发展成为一个提供以分析和计量科学进步为基础的品种标准手册。从2002年开始,《美国药典/国家处方集》每年出版一版In1888,theAmericanPharmaceuticalAssociationpublishedthefirstnationalformulary,andin1975USPacquiredNF.NowUnitedStatesPharmacopeia,throughtheCouncilofExperts,work,continuouslydevelopsUSP-NFintoacompendiumthatprovidesthestandardsofarticlesbasedonadvancesinanalyticalandmetrologicalscience.From2002,NSP-NFhasbeenpublishedannually.3)组成药典委员会就是保证合适地代表健康保健体系中的相关部门,这些部门受到药典委员会的影响,反过来也影响药典委员会的活动。药典委员会成员选举专家委员会,以及药典总裁、财务主管,他们也投票决定指导药典的科学决策、公共卫生措施,如果必要,也更新药典的章程和内部规章。USPConventioncompositionisdeterminedtoensuresuitablerepresentationofsomerelated
18sectionsofthehealthcaresystemthatareinfluencedby,andinturninfluence,USP’sactivities.ConventionmemberselectUSP'sPresident,TreasurerandothermembersoftheBoardofTrusteesaswellastheCouncilofExperts,andalsovoteonresolutionstoguideUSP,'sscientificpolicyandpublichealthinitiativesandupdate,,asneeded,USP’sConstitutionandBy-Laws.4)在美国,联邦《食品药品化妆品法案》认为的“官方手册”就是指官方的美国药典,官方的国家处方集,官方的《美国顺势疗法药典》或者它们的增补本。FDA可以依据《美国药典/国家处方集》的标准禁止某些指定产品流入或流出美国市场。IntheUnitedStates,theFD&CActdefinestheterm“officialcompendium”astheofficialUSP,theofficialNF,theofficialHomeopathicPharmacopeiaoftheUnitedStates,oranysupplementtothem.FDA,onthebasisofstandardsintheUSP-NF,mayprevententryortoremovedesignatedproductsfromtheUnitedStatesmarket.5)《食品药品及化妆品法案》规定品种在规格、质量或者纯度方面可以有不同,而且可以用同样的名称,只要在品种标签上注明就可以。FDA要求非法定的品种名称必须和法定手册中认可的名称明确区分、区别开来。TheFD&CActstipulatesthatanarticlemaydifferinstrength,quality,orpurityand|stillhavethesamenameifthedifferenceisstatedonthearticleslabel.FDArequiresthatnamesforarticlesthatarenotofficialmustbeclearlydistinguishinganddifferentiatingfromanynamerecognizedinanofficialcompendium.Unit12TextADevelopmentofNewDrugs(1)Drugdevelopmentaimstoproduceanoveltherapeuticagentwhichissuperiorinefficacytoexistingremediesandwhichcauseslessfrequentorlesssevereadverseeffects.新药的研制(一)药物研制旨在生产出疗效上优于现有药品,且副作用发生率减少、程度降低的新型治疗药物。1EvolutionofanewdrugThedevelopmentofanewtherapeuticagentinvolvesamultidisciplinarygroupinmanyyearsofwork.Formerly,drugswereextractedfromnaturalplantandanimalsources.Therapeuticusewasempiricalandbasedontraditionalexperience.Overthelast80yearsanimpressivenumberofdrugshavebeensynthesizedchemically.Withthedevelopmentofgeneticengineeringandtheproductionofmonoclonalantibodiesitislikelythatevenmoreagentswillbeproducedartificially.1.新药评估新药研制涉及多学科研究人员多年的共同研究成果。以前药物是从天然植物和动物中提取的,其治疗作用全凭经验和传统作法来确定的。在过去的80年中,人们通过化学合成,研制出大量药物。随着遗传工程学和单克隆抗体技术的发展,人们必将研制出更多新药。Synthetictechniqueshaveproducedpuresubstances.Thishasledtoincreasedspecificityofactionand,insomecases,greaterefficacyandreducedtoxicity.Unfortunatelynewdrugdevelopmentisexpensive,andonlyafewsubstances(lessthan1%)ofthosedevelopedareactuallymarketedandusedinpractice.合成技术已研制出高纯度药物,这不仅提高了治疗的准确性,有时还提高了疗效,降低了毒副作用。遗憾的是,新药研制的费用太高,只有少量已研制出的药物(不到1%)被实际推向市场,投人使用。Therangeofnovelchemicalentitiesdevelopedhasoccasionallyledtounexpectedtoxicity.As
19aconsequence,mostgovernmentshaveestablishedbodiestoregulatedrugmarketing,e.g.thecommitteeonSafetyofMedicinesinBritain,andtheFoodandDrugAdministrationintheUSA.Theseagenciessuperviseclinicalresearchonnewdrugsandlicensenewproducts.Althoughtheyservetoprotectthepublicandareseentodoso,thestatutoryproceduresthatmustbefollowedinapplyingforalicenseforanewdrugaddgreatlytothecostsandtimeofdevelopment1.在研制出的新型化学制品中,偶尔会产生意想不到的毒副作用。因此,大多数政府都设有药品上市管理机构,例如:英国的药品安全委员会和美国的食品和药品管理局。这些机构负责管理新药的临床研究和颁发新药证书。然而,尽管其作用是保护公众利益,但申报新药审批所必须遵循的诸多法律程序却大大增加了研制的成本和时间。Thereissomeevidencethattherateofintroductionofentirelynovelagentsisslowingdown.Whetherthisreflectseconomicpressuresordiminishednovelsyntheticcapacityorabilityisnotclear2.有迹象显示,全新药物投入使用的速率正在下降。这一现象是否可以反映企业经济压力增加,或者是新药数量不足或研制能力下降,具体原因尚不清楚。2DrugdevelopmentstrategiesSeveralstrategieshavebeenusedinthedevelopmentofnewdrugs.Overtheyearsallhavehadsuccessbutnosingleapproachhasbeenconsistentlysuccessful.2.新药研制方略。近年来,几种方略被用于新药的研发,他们均取得了成功,但没有哪种方法是长盛不衰的。偶然发现、运气及直觉Serendipity,luckandintuition.Thisapproachhasbeenappliedlessfrequentlyinrecentyears.ThediscoveryofpenicillinbyFlemingwasinthiscategory.此法近年来应用较少。弗莱明发明青霉素属于此类Molecularroulette.Randomchemicalsynthesisofnewstructuresandpharmacologicalscreening.Thisapproachiswastefulanddependsontheavailabilityofsensitiveanimalorin-vitromodelsofhumandisease,whichoftendonotexist.分子轮盘赌。对新结构式及药理筛选的随机化学合成。此法耗费巨大,且有赖于得到往往很难得到的可利用的敏感型动物或人类疾病的体外模型。Minorstructuralchangesinexistingagents.Occasionallythisleadstocompoundsofgreaterefficacyandrarelytodrugswithnovelactionsdetectedinpharmacologicalscreeningorclinicalpractice.对现有药物分子结构的修饰。此法偶尔可产生功效更高的化合物,但罕有可能产生药理筛选和临床实践中被检测出具有全新功效的药物。Programmedbasicresearchwithsynthesisofspecificchemical.Intellectuallythisapproachisthemostsatisfying.Therehavebeenspectacularresults,e.g.levodopaanddopamineagonistsinthetreatmentofParkinsonism;beta-receptorblockersforangina;histamine(H)antagonistsinpepticulcerdisease;convertingenzymeinhibitorsinhypertension.2However,thisapproachisexpensiveandthereisnoguaranteeofsuccess.针对特定化学物质合成而制定的有计划的基础研究。从研究的角度看,这种方法最为令人满意,至今已取得显著成功,例如:治疗帕金森神经功能障碍所用的左旋多巴及多巴胺;治疗心绞痛的肾上腺素受体阻滞剂;消化性溃疡病使用的组胺拮抗药;用于高血压的转换酶抑制剂。不过,此法耗费巨大,且前景莫测。Clinicalobservationofdrugactioninpractice.Thisisthetraditionalmeansofdrugassessment.Newapplicationsarisefrommeasurementofdrugactioninmanindiseasestates.Theantihypertensiveeffectsofthiazidediureticsandbeta-blockerswerenotpredictedfromanimalscreeningtests.Theywereonlyidentifiedafterthedrugs
20wereavailableandwerebeingusedinpractice.使用中药物作用的临床观察。这是药物评估的传统方法。通过对人体处于疾患状态中药物作用的评估,人们发现其有新的应用价值。噻嗪类利尿剂的抗高血压作用在动物检涵试验中并没发现而是在这些药物投放市场并被实际应用后,其上述作用才被发现。3ExperimentalpharmacologyThesestudiesdeterminewhetherthedrughasthedesiredprofileofactioninmodelsystems.Themodelsareselectedtoprovideasreliableanindexofefficacyinmanaspossible.3实验药理学。这些研究将确定该药在模型系统中是否具有预期的作用。模型的选择应尽可能使其提供可信的人体功效指标。Severalmodelsareusuallyemployed.Themodelsmaybesimpleorcomplexandinclude:(1)Cellculturesorbacteria;(2)Partiallypurifiedenzymesorsubcellularparticles;(3)Isolatedtissues;(4)Perfusedorgans;(5)Intactanimalsfrommicetoprimates.以下是几种常用模型,简单型和复杂型兼而有之:(1)细胞培养或细菌培养;⑵部分提纯的酶或亚细胞粒子;⑴离体组织;⑷灌注器官;(5)从小鼠到灵长类的正常无损伤动物。Theobjectistoidentifytherapeuticallyusefulpharmacologicalactivityandtocharacterizetheseactionsusingestablishedmodelsanddrugsofknownaction.Whendrugswithspecificactionsonenzymesorreceptorsarebeingstudied,relativelysimplecellfreesystemsorisolatedtissuepreparationscanbeused3.Whenpoorlycharacterizedsubjectiveactionsaresought,particularlyinvolvingbehavioraleffects,itmaybenecessarytoperformtestsinconsciousintactanimals.该目标旨在确立其在治疗上具备有效的药理学作用,并通过使甩已知模型和疗效确定的药物来描述这些作用。在研究药物对酶或受体的特异性效用时,可选择相对简单的、较为独立的系统或组织施药。如果将特征不明显的主观行为作为研究对象,特别是涉及行为效果时,则有必要在意识健全的动物身上进行试验。4ToxicologicalassessmentInparallelwithpharmacologicalexperimentsonefficacy,thetoxiceffectsofacuteandchronicdosingaredetermined.AcutetoxicityislessimportantaslongasLD(thedosethatkills50%of50animals)isnotclosetotheED(thedosecausing50%ofmaximumpharmacologicalresponse).504.毒理学评估。与评价药物功效的药理学实验类似,需确定用药的急慢性毒副作用。只要LD50(导致50%实验动物死亡的剂量)未接近ED50(引起50%实验动物最大药理学反应的剂量),急性毒副作用便不甚重要。Chronictoxicitytestingismorerelevanttoclinicalapplicationsandshouldtakeplacealongthefollowinglines4:慢性毒性测试与临床应用关系更为密切,须按下列规则进行:(1)Therouteofadministration,doserange,dosefrequencyandplasmalevelsshouldbeappropriatetolikelyclinicalindications.Ifpossible,methodsshouldbeavailabletomeasureplasmaconcentrationsandtodeterminepatternsofmetabolism.
21(2)Atleasttwospeciesshouldbestudied,usuallydogandratormouse.Ifpossibleaspeciesshouldbeselectedwithasimilarprofileofmetabolismtoman.(3)Thedurationoftreatmentshouldbeconsistentwiththelikelydurationofuseinmanandtherelativelifeexpectancyoftheanimalspecies.Usuallytoxicitystudiesareundertakenoveraperiodof4weekstoatleast1year.(4)Hematologicalandbiochemicalmeasurementsshouldbemadeserially.Alltissuesshouldbeexaminedhistologicallyatdeathoronsacrificeoftheexperimentalgroup.Anuntreatedcontrolgroupoflittermatesshouldbemaintainedforcomparison.⑴给药途径、剂量范围、用药次数和血药浓度应该与可能的临床指征相适应。有可能的话,应设法测定血浆浓度,确定代谢模式。⑵至少应测试两种动物,通常为狗和鼠(大鼠或小鼠)。应尽可能选择一种与人代谢特点相似的动物。(3)疗程应与用于人类和具有相关预期寿命的动物的可能疗程相一致。通常毒性研究需经历四周至一年的时间。⑷应不断地进行血液学测定和生化测定。对实验组中的死亡对象的所有组织都要进行组织学检查。应设定同窝出生的非治疗用对照组以便比较。Dependingontheproposedpatientgroupanddiseaseindication,attentionmustbepaidto:(a)Effectsonfertilityinbothmalesandfemales.(b)Teratogeniceffectsondevelopmentoftheembryo.Thevulnerableperiodisveryearlyindevelopment,duringorganogenesis.(c)Mutagenicityoranincreasedrateofmutationingermcelllinesornon-reproductivecells,e.g.bonemarrow.(d)Carcinogenicityortheinductionorpromotionofmalignanttumors.基于目标患者群及病情指征,下列各点应予以注意:(a)对于男性和女性的生育力影响。(b)对胚胎发育的畸形影响。其敏感期处于发育早期一器官形成期。(c)生殖细胞内膜或非生殖细胞发生诱变或加速突变,例如骨髓。(d)致癌性或恶性肿瘤的的诱发或促进。Thereisdisagreementovertherelevanceofsomeanimalcarcinogenicitystudiestoman5.Extensiveformaltoxicologicaltestsarenowrequiredinmostcountriesbeforedrugscanbeusedonpatients.Thereisconsiderablecontroversyastothevalueofroutinetoxicologytesting,asmanydifferencesbetweenspecies,especiallybetweenmanandrat,mouse,anddog,havebeenreported6.对于有关一些动物致癌性研究与人类的相关问题,尚存有分歧。现在大多数国家都规定,只有在广泛的毒理学正规检测之后,药物才可使用于患者。由于种属间,特别是人与鼠或狗之间的诸多差异早有报道,所以,对于常规毒理学测试的价值,人们在看法上有很大分歧。Paradoxically,thalidomide,whichwasthecauseofthetragedythatledtostricterdrugregulationandtoxicologytests,isnotteratogenicinmiceorratsbuthasateratogeniceffectinhumans,causinggrosslimbdeformities.令人感到困惑的是,反应停(此药导致了一场悲剧,从而使得药物管理和毒理学检测更为严格)用于老鼠并未出现畸形现象,但却在人体出现了致畸作用,引起肢体残疾。翻译1)以前,药物都是从天然植物和动物那儿提取的,治疗方法也是以传统经验为基础的。Formerly,drugswereextractedfromnaturalplantsandanimalsources,and
22therapeuticusewasbasedontraditionalexperience.2)药物研制策略包括偶然发现、分子随机组合、有计划的研究某一特定化学成分的合成等方法。Drugdevelopmentstrategiesinvolveserendipity,molecularroulette,programmedbasicresearchwithsynthesisofspecificchemical,etc.3)当某种药物被数百万人使用时,肯定会有不良反应出现,尽管具体到个人这种危险性并不大。Whenadrugisusedbymillions,therearecertaintobeadversereactionseventhoughtherisktoanyindividualissmall.6)新药的药理学实验将确定该药在模型系统中是否具备人们期待的药物功能Pharmacologicalexperimentonanewdrugdetermineswhetherthedrughasthedesiredprofileofactioninmodelsystem.10)现在,化学家和生物学家非常重视分子生物学和生化药理学等研究领域。Chemistsandbiologistshavenowattachedgreatimportancetosuchfieldsofresearchasmolecularbiologyandbiochemicalpharmacology.Unit12TextBDevelopmentofNewDrugs(2)5ClinicalevaluationOnlyafteranimalstudieshaveprovedefficacy,andtoxicologicalstudieshaveprovidedameasureofthepossiblerisk,cannewdrugsbegiventohumans.Atthisstageafurtherrequirementisanalyticalevidenceofchemicalpurityandpharmaceuticalstability.5临床评价只有在动物实验证明有效,毒理学测试提出了可接受的危险之后,新药才可试用于人体。本阶段将进一步要求对化学纯度和药物的稳定性提出分析性数据。Evaluationinmancanbeconsideredinfourphases.Therelevanceandextentofstudiesatthesestagesdependsonthedruganditsindications.Drugsforuseinrarediseases,orinlife-threateningandasyetuntreatablestates,maybeevaluatedinpatientgroupsatanearlierstagethanthosewithreadilymeasurableeffectsoncommondiseases1.对人体试验的评价被认为有四个阶段。各阶段的试验进行到何种程度取决于试验药物本身及其适应证。药物用于罕见病例,或病情危及甚至是不治之症时,其药效评价可于前期进行;如药物用于常见病例,效果随时可见,评价则可在较后阶段进行。Phase1involvessmallscalestudiesinnormalvolunteers.Thesestudiesshoulddeterminewhetherthedrugcanbegiventomanwithoutserioussymptomsortoxicity,andwhetherithasthedesiredpharmacologicaleffects.Thesestudiesoftenbeginwithadose-rangingstudy,using1/50to1/100theeffectivedoseinanimalsandincreasinguntilthedesiredeffect,oradverseeffects,areseen.Thesestudiesshouldonlybeperformedonvolunteerswhoareinformedabouttheimplicationsofthetests,andwhogivetheirconsentfreely.Studiesshouldincludecarefulassessmentofclinical,hematologicalandbiochemicalevidencebeforeandafterdrugadministrationtoidentifypharmacologicalactionsandadverseeffects.Phase1studiesshouldonlybeperformedbyexperiencedstaff,undermedicalsupervision,andinpremiseswithappropriateresuscitativefacilitiesandsupport.第一阶段本阶段指的是在健康的志愿者身上进行的小规模试验。其研究应确定该药是否可用于人类而不会出现严重症状或毒性,是否可产生预期的药理学效果。这些研究往往起始于剂量测试法:首先使用动物有效剂量的1/50到1/100,然后逐量增加至出现预期效果或副作用。这些研究只可在志愿者身上进行,要告诉他们试验的目的所在,让他们自愿接受实验。研究应包括对施药前后的临床表现、血液学和生化指标进行仔细评价,
23从而确定其药理学作用和副作用。第一阶段的研究只能由经验丰富的科研人员在医疗监护下进行操作,并配备足量的抢救设施予以支持。Phase2studiesdeterminewhetherthenewdrughasthedesiredeffectonpatientswiththeappropriatedisease.InBritaintheseinvestigationscanbeperformedonlyaftersubmissionofpreclinicalandphase1studyresultstotheCommitteeonSafetyofMedicines.Thisbodyeitherissuesaclinicaltrialcertificate(CTC)orauthorizeslimitedclinicaltrialsunderanexemptionprocedure(CTE).Phase2studiesinitiallymaybeopen,uncontrolled,dose-rangingexperimentsbutshouldincludecontrolledstudiesundersingleordouble-blindconditions.Theymayinvolvecomparisonswithinactiveplaceboorknownactiveagents2.第二阶段该阶段研究将确定新药施用于相应疾病的患者是否可达到预期的效果。在美国,必须先向药物安全委员会提出有关临床前和第一阶段研究结果的报告之后方可进行此类研究。委员会将发放临床实验证书(CTC)或批准在免除程序下进行有限的临床试验(CTE)。第二阶段研究开始可进行开放的、非控制性的剂量测试实验。但应包括单盲或双盲条件下的控制性研究。研究中可设置一些只服用非活性安慰剂或已知的活性药物的对照组。Phase3Ifresultsoftherapeuticefficacyandsafetyjustifyit,thenextstepisprogressiontolargescaleclinicaltrialstodeterminehowthenewdrugcomparesinclinicalpracticewithexistingremedies,andtoestablishitsprofileofactionandfrequencyofadverseeffects.第三阶段如果治疗效果和安全状况得以证实,下一步将继续进行大规模临床实验,目的是在临床应用方面将新药与现有药物进行比较,从而确立其作用特点和副作用发生频度。AfterPhase3studiestheevidencefromallstagesofdevelopmentisassembledandiftheconclusionsindicateausefulaction,thedrugmaybesubmittedtotheregulatoryauthoritieswitharequestforaproductlicense.第三阶段研究完成后,将汇总各阶段研究结果。如果结论表明其具备有效作用,该药将可能被提交至管理机构申领新药证书。Phase4Anewdrugisusuallymarketedafteronlyafewhundred,oratthemostafewthousand,patientshavebeenexposedtoitforarelativelyshortperiod(weeksormonths).Post-marketingsurveillanceisincreasinglyundertakentoassessefficacyandtoxicityofnewdrugsonalargerscale.NouniformschemeforPhase4supervisionhasyetbeenestablished,butfewdoubtthenecessityofcollectingthisinformationonlow-frequencyadverseeffects3.第四阶段新药通常在几百例,至多几千例患者身上经过相对短暂的(数周或数月)试用后便被推向市场。投放市场后不断地对新药进行监测,对其在大范围内使用的效用及毒性作出评价。对第四阶段的监管虽然没有规定统一的操作模式,但很少有人怀疑该价段收集低频副作用信息的必要性。6MarketingandpromotionTherationaleforthedevelopmentofnewdrugsshouldbetoprovidebetterdrugs;betterinthesenseofbeingeithermoreeffective,saferorcheaper.6.市场促销新药研制的根本目的应该是提供更好的药物;所谓更好是指更为有效、安全或者便宜。Drugdevelopmentisexpensive.Thisisbornebythepharmaceuticalindustry,whichjustifiablyexpectstorecoupthecostofdevelopmentwhentheproductisfinallymarketed.Insometherapeuticareaswheredrugsarewidelyused,e.g.antibiotics,nonsteroidalanti-inflammatorydrugs,analgesics,antihypertensives,heavyinvestmentinmarketingandpromotionhasledtotheuseofundistinguishednewdrugsinplaceofequallyeffective,cheaperandestablishedalternativeswhosesideeffectprofileiswellknown.Therapeuticfadsandfashionsshouldbeavoidedandprescribingpracticeschanged4onlywhengoodevidenceofimprovedefficacyorreducedtoxicityisavailable.药品研制的费用昂货,这是由制药企业来承担的,它理所当然地期望在药品最终投放市场时能够补偿其研制成本。在一些治疗领域,各种药物被广泛使用,例如:抗生索、非甾体抗炎药
24物、镇痛药、抗高血药物等。对市场促销的重金投人已导致了不加区分地使用新药,新药甚至代替了效果同样明显、价格更为便觉且副作用状况十分明了的其他常用药。除非有充分证据表明药物的疗效提高、毒性降低,否则,应避免在治疗上的狂热和盲从,同时医生的开药行为也应加以改进。Thephysicianneedsguidanceoncriticalassessmentofwhatrepresentsandimportantadvance.Unfortunately,hismostaccessiblesourceofinformationistherepresentativeofthepharmaceuticalmanufacturerwhohasbeenspeciallytrainedandbriefedtopromotehisparticularnewproduct;indeedhislivelihooddependsontheabilitytodoso.在客观评价什么药处于领先水平方面,是很需要对医生给予指导帮助的。遗憾的是,他最易接触的消息来源却是制药商的医药代表,这些人经过专门训练,其介绍的目的就是要推销自己手中的新药;其生计也就取决于他的推销能力。Practitionersmustseekoutalternativesourcesofinformationfromdistrictorregionalinformationpharmacists,specialist,clinicalcolleagues,postgraduatemeetingsandpublicationsinthescientificliterature.Publications,inthemselves,canbemisleading.Evidencefromafewcontrolledstudiespublishedinwell-establishedjournalssubjecttopeerreviewismorereliablethanbulkyobscureproceedingsofsponsoredmeetingstopromoteaparticulardrug.医生必须通过其他途径寻求信息,诸如咨询当地药师、专家、临床同事、研究生聚会及科学文献出版机构等。出版部门本身也可能误导。与那些为促销某种药物而举办的赞助性会议上散发的大量含糊其辞的消息汇编相比,发表在供同行参阅的著名杂志上的小范围研究报告中所披露的信息则显得更为真实可信。Physiciansshouldmakeanactiveattempttodetermineinwhatwayanewdrugrepresentsanimprovementoverexistingtherapy,andwhatisthepriceintermsofadverseeffectsandactualcostofthedrug5.医生应该独立自主地确定新药与现存药物相比到底优势在哪里,就其副作用及实际成本消耗来看,该药的价格是否合理。Asnewdrugsmaybemarketedafterstudiesinonlyafewhundredorthousandpatients,specialvigilanceisrequiredinthefirstfewyearsofusetodeterminelow-frequency,butpotentiallyseriousadverseeffects.Newdrugdevelopmentsshouldbeexaminedcritically;objectiveevidencefromseveralsourcesshouldbesoughttohighlightimprovedtherapeuticefficacyandreducedtoxicityincontrolledcomparisonwithestablishedremedies.由于新药只是在数百或数千患者身上试用后便被推向市场,所以,在其使用的头几年应予以特别关注,从而确定其是否具有严重的潜在危害的低频副作用。新药研制工作应审慎进行;应以多种途径寻求客观证据来阐明在经过适度规模的比较后其确实具有比现存药物更好的疗效和更低的毒副作用。翻译4)新药的临床评价必须在动物研究证明有效之后方可进行。新药的人体评价可分为四个阶段,每个阶段都应在严格的监管下进行。Onlyafteranimalstudieshaveprovedefficacycanclinicalevaluationofnewdrugsbeundertaken.Newdrugevaluationinmancanbedividedintofourphases,eachofwhichshouldbeconductedunderstrictsupervision.5)剂量范围的研究只能在自愿者身上进行,他们应了解试验的含义,并自觉自愿地接受试验。Adose-rangingstudyshouldonlybeperformedonvolunteerswhoareinformedabouttheimplicationsofthetests,andwhogivetheirconsentfreely.
256)第三阶段的大规模临床试验将确立新药的功用以及毒副作用的频率。LargescaleclinicaltrialsinPhase3aretoestablishnewdrug'sprofileofactionandfrequencyofadverseeffects.7)药品开发的可观费用是由制药商承担的,他当然希望在产品最终投放市场时得到补偿。Theexpensivecostindrugdevelopmentisbornebythepharmaceuticalmanufacturer,whichjustifiablyexpectstorecoupitwhentheproductisfinallymarketed.8)发表于著名杂志的有关新药的信息比以促销为生的医药代表的介绍更为可信。用于新药促销方面的巨额投资不仅导致了不加区别的使用新药,同时也提高了药品的成本。Informationaboutthenewdrugpublishedinwell-establishedjournalsismorereliablethanthatofferedbythemedicalrepresentativewhoselivelihooddependsonabilitytopromotetheproduct.Heavyinvestmentinpromotionhasnotsimplyledtotheuse〇fundistinguishednewdrugs,buttoahighercostofthedrugsaswell.Unit13TextATheImpactofPharmaceuticalCareonDrugTherapy(abridgedfromHealth-RelatedQualityofLifeafterIschemicStroke:TheImpactofPharmaceuticalInterventionsonDrugTherapybyCARINAHOHMANN,ROLANDRADZIWILL,JUERGENMKLOTZANDANDREASHJACOBS)Health-relatedqualityoflife(HRQoL)relatedtostrokeandlifesatisfactionafterstrokearesoimportantthattheyshoulddrawmuchattentionworldwide.PharmaceuticalCare(PC),firstoutlinedbyHeplerandStrandin1990,hasbeenthesubjectofintensiveresearchforseveralyears.PCistheprovisionofdrugtherapybyaresponsiblepharmacistforthepurposeofachievingadefiniteoutcometoimprovethepatients'qualityoflife.Intheprocessesofpharmaceuticalcare,patientsafetyistakenintoconsiderationfirstwheneveramedicationisused,andtheoptimaloutcomeisalsoaveryimportantsubject.Pharmacistshouldworkinconcertwith[1]thepatientandthepatient'sotherhealthcareproviderstomonitorandmodifymedicationusetoassurethatdrugtherapyregimensaresafeandeffective.Thus,PCisaconcepttooptimizedrugtherapy,minimizedrug-relatedproblems,andimprovesself-management.Itcandirectlyaffectthepatient'sHRQoL.Thepharmacistisapartofthehealthcareteam,andextensivecommunicationbetweenpharmacist,physician,andthepatientisnecessarytoachieveadefinedhealthcareoutcome.ThepositiveinfluenceofPConHRQoLhasbeendemonstratedinseveraltrials.脑卒中后健康相关的生活质量及生活满意度非常重要,应在世界范围内受到关注。药学监护最初由Hepler和Strand在1990年提出,已成为多年来集中研究的主题。药学监护由责任药师监察药物治疗情况,从而取得确切疗效以改善患者的生活质量。在药学监护过程中,用药时首先应考虑病人的安全问题,获得最佳疗效也是一个极重要的主题。药师应与患者及患者的其他医疗服务者共同努力,监测及调整用药方案,从而保证药物治疗安全有效。因此,药学监护是优化药物治疗,使药物相关问题最小化,提髙自我管理的一个概念。它可直接影响患者的健康相关生活质量。药师是医疗服务团队中的一部分,药师、医师和病人间必须有广泛的交流,从而获得确切的健康护理效果。药学监护对健康相关生活质量的积极影响已在几个临床试验得到证实。ThemainobjectiveofthisstudywastoevaluatetheimpactofPContheHRQoL,asdeterminedbyShortForm36[2-3](SF-36)amongpatientsafterTIA[4](transientischemicattack)orischemicstrokeone-yearfollowingtheirinitialentryintothehospital.本研究的主要目的是以简表的形
26式对开始发病人院一年的短暂性脑缺血和缺血性脑卒中的患者进行评估以评价药学监护对健康相关生活质量的影响。Thepatientswereassignedeithertoaninterventiongroup(IG)oracontrolgroup(CG).Pharmacistswhoaremembersofthe"QualityAssuranceWorkingGroup"(QAWG)providedPCforpatientsintheIG.PharmacistsoftheQAWGmetonaregularbasis(onceamonth)todiscussspecificdrug-relatedissuesandtoensureproperimplementationofPCintheirpharmacies.ThePCprocessinthisstudycomprisesmedicationreviewsandcounselinginterviewswithregardstomedicines,especiallythoseforsecondaryprevention,andtospecificactions,sideeffects,anddrug-interactionsaswellascardiovascularriskfactorssuchashypertension,diabetesmellitus,andhyperlipidemia.Hypertensionremainsamajormodifiableriskfactorforcardiovasculardiseases.Thediagnosisofhypertensionismadewhentheaverageoftwoormorediastolicbloodpressure(BP)measurementsonatleasttwosubsequentvisitsismorethan90mmHgorwhentheaverageofmultiplesystolicBPreadingsontwoormoresubsequentvisitsisconsistentlymorethan140mmHg.Diabetesmellitusisagroupofmetabolicdiseasescharacterizedbychronichyperglycemiaresultingfromdefectsininsulinsecretion,insulinaction,orboth.Hyperlipidemiaisdefinedasanabnormalplasmalipidstatus.Commonlipidabnormalitiesincludeelevatedlevelsoftotalcholesterol,low-densitylipoproteincholesterol,lipoproteinA,andtriglyceride;aswellaslowlevelsofhigh-densitylipoproteincholesterol.Theseabnormalitiescanbefoundaloneorincombination.Furthermore,thepharmacistshadtodetectandsolvedrug-relatedproblems(DRPs).ThecommunitypharmacistsreceivededucationandtraininginPCwithrespecttopatientswithstrokeinseveralworkshops.Topicsincludedcausesofstroke,riskfactors,symptoms,definitionofPC,identifyingandsolvingDRPsanddesigningaPCplan.Riskfactorssuchashypertension,diabetesmellitus,hyperlipidemia,andatrialfibrillationaswellassecondarypreventionandindividualpatientproblemswerediscussed.TheothercommunitypharmacistsdeliveredstandardcareforthepatientswithintheCG.病人被分到干预组或对照组。为干预组的病人提供药学监护的药师须是质量保证工作小组中的成员。质量保证工作小组中的药师定期碰面(每月一次),讨论具体的药物相关问题,并确保在各自药房恰当地进行药学监护。本研究中的药学监护过程包括用药述评和指导性交谈,指导性交谈针对用药,尤:其是二级预防的用药、特殊作用、副作用及药物相互作用,以及心血管危险因素,如高血压、糖尿病和高脂血症。高血压仍然是心血管病的主要的可变危险因素。当在至少两次以上连续的就诊中,两次或多次舒张压测定的平均值超过90mmHg,或当在两次或多次连续的就诊中,多次收缩压读数的平均值持续超过140mmHg时,即诊断为高血压。糖尿病是一类代谢性疾病,其特点是由于胰岛素分泌缺陷、胰岛素作用缺陷或两者兼有而导致的慢性高血糖。高脂血症被定义为异常的血浆脂质状态。常见的血脂质异常包括高水平的总胆固醇、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇、脂蛋白A和甘油三酯,以及低水平的高密度脂蛋白胆固醇,这些异常情况可单独存在或共同存在。此外,药师必须检出并解决药物相关问题。社区药师在一些进修班里接受与脑卒中患者药学监护相关的教育和培训,主题涉及脑卒中的病因、危险因素、症状、药学监护的定义、鉴别及解决药物相关问题,及制定药学监护计划。讨论高血压、糖尿病、高脂血症和房颤这样的危险因素,以及二级预防和病人个体化问题。其他社区药师给对照组的病人实施常规服务。ThePCprocessforthepatientsintheIGconsistsofthreesections:(i)Athospital:Patientsandtheirrelativesreceivedacounselinginterviewfromtheclinicalpharmacistaboutthecurrentmedication,theireffects,thedosageandimportantsideeffectsaswellasadministrationadvice.Amedicationrecordwithdetailedinformationaboutthedrugname,thedosageandadministrationadvicewasprovided.(ii)Seamlesscare:Atthetimeofdischargefromhospital,thegeneral
27practitioner,therehabilitationhospital,andthecommunitypharmacistreceivedadetailedcareplanforthepatientfromtheclinicalpharmacist.(iii)Intheambulatorysetting:PCwascontinuedbytheattendingpharmacistfor12monthsduringthisstudy.Atleastonecounselinginterviewbetweenthepharmacistandthepatienteverythreemonthswasobligatory.Theattendingpharmacistwasrequiredtodocumentthemedication,theDRPsandthecounselinginterview.干预组病人的药学监护过程包括三部分1在医院,病人及其家家属接受临床药师的指导性谈话,内容关于病人目前用药情况、药效、剂剂量和主要的副作用,以及用药指导。提供一个用药记录,详述药名、剂量、用药方法。2.衔接阶段的服务:出院时,全科医生、康复医院和社区药师收到一份由临床药师为病人制定的详细服务计划。3.在可走动的地点:参加药师继续进行12个月的药学监护。三个月至少必须有一次药师和病人之间的指导谈话。参加的药师需要将用药、药物相关问题和指导性交谈情况记录在案。PatientsoftheCGreceivedamedicationrecordatthetimeofdischargefromhospitalandreceivedstandardcarefromtheircommunitypharmacy.Thereisnodefinedstandardcareprocessforthecommunitypharmacyanditdependsoneachpharmacist.Generalissuesareforexampledispensingmedicine,givingadviceonmedicine,andinformationaboutsideeffectsanddruginteractions.对照组的病人在出院时收到一份用药记录,接受社区药房的规定护理。社区药房的护理过程没有固定的标准,而是取决于每位药师。常规的问题是分发药物、提供药物使用意见、给予副作用和药物相互作用的信息。Astheresult,asignificantdeclineinPhysicalComponentSummary(PCS)andMentalComponentSummary(MCS)wasobservedbetweenbaselineandatfollow-upfortheCG.ChangesinPCSandMCSbetweenstudyentryandatfollow-upwerenotstatisticallysignificantfortheIG.ThisisthefirststudyinGermanytoinvestigatetheimpactofintensivePCversusstandardcareinalargerpatientpopulationwithischemicstroke.ThisstudydemonstratesthatPCisabletopreventdeteriorationofmostHRQoLparametersovera12monthsperiod.OurfindingsindicatethatPCasperformedinthehospitalandinthecommunitysettingisfeasibleandhasaclearbenefitandpositiveimpactonpatient'sHRQoL.Moreover,thisstudyisastepforwardtowardsmonitoringtheimplementationofPCwithinhospitalsandwithinthecommunitysettingandtowardsevaluatingtheroleofpharmacistswithinaspecifictherapeuticteam.WefoundthataPCconceptstabilizestheHRQoLinseveralscalesasaresultofanintensifiedinvolvementbypharmacists.结果可见,对照组中,治疗后与治疗前比,身体部分总得分和精神部分总得分均显著下降。干预组中,身体部分总得分和精神部分总得分治疗后与治疗前相比的变化,统计学上无显著差异。这是首次在德国的较大批缺血性脑卒中患者范围内研究强化药学监护对比标准护理对患者造成的影响。本研究表明,药学监护在12个月期间能够改善大多数患者的健康相关的生活质量参数。我们的发现表明,在医院和社区进行药学监护是可行的,且对患者的健康相关的生活质量有明显益处和积极影响。此外,本研究更进一步的监测了药学监护在医院和社会范围内的实施,并进一步评价了在特定的治疗团队中药师的作用。我们发现,由于强化了药师的干预,药学监护在几个衡量标准上稳定了健康相关的生活质量。Inacomparisonofthesubscalesandthesummarymeasuresinbothgroupsuponstudyentrytherewerenosignificantdifferences,thusprovidinganoptimalstartingpointformeasuringtheimpactofPConHRQoL.After12monthsthecomparisonoftheHRQoLofthepatientswhoreceivedintensifiedPCwiththosewhoreceivedstandardcareshowedthatthevitalityofthepatientsinCGwassignificantlylowerthanofpatientsinIG.Theothersubscalesandthesummarymeasuresshowedlower,butnotsignificant,HRQoLscoresinCGindicatinginferiorHRQoLascomparedwiththepatientsinIG.Duetoethicalconsiderationscommunitypharmacieswerenot
28restrictedfromdeliveringPCasitdidnotseemappropriatetokeepthecontrolpharmacistsfromprovidingPCinthecasethatDRPbecameapparent.[5]Forthisreasonthecomparisonmaynottobestatisticallysignificant.比较两组的次衡量标准和总衡量标准得分,实验前没有显著差异,因此,为测定药学监护对健康相关生活质量的影响提供了适宜的始点。12个月后,比较接受了强化药学监护的患者和接受了常规服务的患者的健康相关的生活质量,表明,对照组病人的活力显著差于干预组,与干预组病人比,对照组的其他次衡量标准和总衡量标准得分低,但不显著,健康相关的生活质量得分表明,属劣等生活质量。出于道德上的考虑,在出现明显药物相关问题时,阻止对照组药师提供药监护似乎是不恰当的,故不限制社区要放提供药学监护。为此,该比较也许不具统计学意义。Mostimportantly,therewasasignificantdeteriorationof7of8subscalesaswellasbothsummarymeasuresoftheHRQoLoverthe12monthsperiodintheCG.ThatmeansthatpatientswhodonotreceiveintensifiedPChaveahigherchanceofdeterioratingHRQoL.FortheIG,therewasonlyasignificantdeteriorationinbodilypainatfollow-up.ThedeteriorationoftheHRQoLinpatientswithcerebrovasculardiseaseshasbeenreportedinprevioustrialsinseveralparameters.Thequalityofthepatient'srecoverycanbeevaluatedonthebasisoftheactivityofdailyliving(ADL),socialactivities,andreturntowork.IndependentlyofADL,significantdeterioratingeffectsinHRQoLresultfromcontinuinglossoffunctionduetothestroke.[6]ThedeteriorationintheHRQoLcanbecausedbythepresenceofanomalousperceptionanddissatisfactioninpatientswithminordisabilitylevelsthatwereincompletelyrestoredafterthestroke.Thus,theconsequencesofmildtomoderatestrokecanaffectalldimensionsofHRQoLdespitethepatientachievingfullindependenceasmeasuredinADL最重要的是,对照组在12个月期间,8个次衡量标准中冇7个明显变差,健康相关生活质量的两个总衡量标准也变差。这意味着没有接受强化药学监护的患者,健康相关的生活质量变差的风险更高。干预组治疗后只有一个躯休疼痛(指标)明显变差。以前的试验已报告,脑血管病患者的健康相关的生活质量下降表现在儿个参数上,可以以日常生活能力,社交活动和返回工作岗位为基础,评价患者的康复质量。无论日常生活能力怎样,脑卒中后持续功能丧失会导致健康相关的生活质傲明显恶化。健康相关的生活质量也可因脑卒中后没有完全恢复而尚存轻微的残疾、患者有颓废感和不满感而恶化。因此,尽贽在测定日常生活能力时患者已可完全自立,但轻、中度脑卒中的后果能影响健康相关生活质量的各个方面。ByparticipatinginthisstudytheHRQoLofthepatientsintheIGwasstableinseveralsubscalesandbothsummarymeasuresindicatingthattheHRQoLcanbemaintainedbyintensifiedPC.SeveralstudieshavealsodemonstratedthatPCmayhaveapositiveimpactonthepatients'HRQoLforexampleinpatientswithasthmaorhypertension.Graeseletal.investigatedtheimpactofanintensifiedtransitionconceptbetweeninpatientneurologicalrehabilitationandhomecareofpatientswithstroke.Theintensifiedtransitionconceptincludedfouradditionalelements:apsycho-educationalseminarforfamilycarers;anindividualtrainingcourseforcarers;therapeuticweekendcareathomebeforedischarge;andfinally,telephonecounselingthreemonthsafterdischarge.Theresultsshowthatthisconceptdidnotleadtoanysignificantbenefit,neithertofunctionalstatusnortoHRQoL.Thisfindingmayindicatethatthestandardtransitionalreadycontainseffectiveelementsofpreparationforhomecareandthatthereforenofurtherdecisiveadvantagecanbeattained.Otherwisethenumberofpatientsaswellastheobservationperiodinthestudywaslimited,thusexcludinglong-termeffects.通过参加本研究,干预组患者的健康相关的生活质量在几个次衡量标准及两个主衡量标准上均是稳定的,这表明强化药学监护可以维持健康相关的生活质量。几项如对哮喘或高血压患者的研究也已表明,药学监护可以对患者的健康相关的生活质
29量:起到积极作用。Graesel等研究了在住院进行神经康复的病人与脑卒中病人家庭护理之间强化过渡概念的影响。强化过渡概念包括另外四个方面:家庭护理者的心理教育讨论会;护理者的个人训练课程;出院前周末在家里做治疗性护理;最后,出院三个月后的电话指导。结果表明,此概念不会带来任何明显益处,对功能状态和健康相关的生活质量均无益处。此发现提示,标准的过渡已经包含为家庭护理做准备的有效要素,因此没能获得进一步明确的优势。此外,本研究中的患者人数及观察周期有限,因此无法观察到长期结果TheHRQoLofthepatientsintheCGdecreasedsignificantlyinthesubscalesandinbothsummarymeasures.Thedeteriorationofthephysicalrolewassignificantwhilephysicalfunctioningdidnotsignificantlydeteriorate,whichmayindicatethatpatientsperceivedadeclineintheirphysicalconditions.Thereisalargedifferenceinthefrequencyofdiabetesmellitusinbothgroups.DiabetesmellitushasdetrimentaleffectsonarangeofhealthoutcomesincludingHRQoL;forexamplepeoplewithdiabeteshavelowerscoresattheSF-36.Thus,thehigherproportionofpatientswithdiabetesintheCGmaypossiblycausethedeteriorationofHRQoL.经次衡量标准和总衡量标准测试,对照组患者的健康相关的生活质量明显下降。躯体作用明显恶化而躯体功能并没有明显恶化,这可能提示病人察觉到自己躯体状况变差。两组的糖尿病发病率明显不同。糖尿病对一系列健康后果包括健康相关的生活质量具有有害的作用,如糖尿病者SF_36表得分较低。因此,对照组中有糖尿病的病人比例较高,可能会导致健康相关的生活质量恶化。Themortalityrateinbothgroupsseemstoberemarkablylow,whichisduetothefactthatpatientswithaBarthelindex[7]oflessthan30pointsatdischargefromhospitaland/orwholiveinanursinghomewereexcludedfromthisstudy.TheseexclusioncriteriaweredefinedbecauseonlypatientsmobileenoughtogothepharmacycanbegivenPC.两组的死亡率似乎都非常低,这是由于本研究排除了出院时Barthel指数低于30者,以及住小型疗养院者。规定此排除标准是因为只有有足够活动能力去药房的患者才能为之提供药学监护。Thelimitationsofthepresentstudyincludethefactthatnoblindingorrandomizationcouldbeperformed.Atargetnumberof116participantswerecalculatedforeachgroup.However,only90patientscouldberecruitedfortheIG,asmanypatientsrefusedtoparticipate.Thetimeofenrolmentwasextendedfrom12to20monthsandthenstopped.PatientswhowerelosttofollowupwerenotevaluatedforHRQoL,becausenofollow-updatawereavailable.Moreover,wedidnothaveanyinformationonsocioeconomicstatus,financialresourcesorcare-giversupportinpatientsofeithergroup,whichcouldhaveinfluencedtheoutcomeofthepatients.本研究的局限包括没实施盲法或随机。每组预计有116个参与者,然而,由于许多人拒绝参加,干预组只招募到90人。招募时间从12个月延至20个月才停止的。对中途退出的病人无法评价其健康相关的生活质量,因为无继续治疗的数据。此外,我们没有任何关于两组病人的社会经济状况、资金来源或施予照顾状况的相关信息,这些也会影响病人的预后。OurfindingsindicatethatanintensifiededucationandcareofpatientsafterischemicstrokebydedicatedpharmacistsbasedonaconceptofPCmayhaveapositiveimpactonHRQoL.我们的发现提示,患者脑卒中后,由甘于奉献的药师根据药学监护理念对他们进行强化教育与服务,对健康相关的生活质量可能会有积极的影响。翻译1)药学服务强调优化药物治疗、最小化药物问题和提高自我管理能力,其目的是获得最优疗效并提高病人的生活质量。Thefocusofpharmaceuticalcareistooptimizedrugtherapy,minimizedrug-relatedproblems,andimproveself-managementforthepurposeofachievingtheoptimaloutcometoimprovethepatients5qualityoflife.
302)糖尿病是一种代谢性疾病,其特点是由于胰岛素分泌缺陷、胰岛素作用缺陷或二者兼有而出现慢性高血糖,最终有可能导致并发症。Diabetesmellitusisagroupofmetabolicdiseasescharacterizedbychronichyperglycemiaresultingfromdefectsininsulinsecretion,insulinaction,orboth.Ultimately,itislikelytoleadtocomplications.3)干预组病人的药学服务过程包括三部分,分别是在医院、出院后和活动地点提供的药学服务。ThePharmaceuticalCareprocessforthepatientsintheInterventionGroupconsistsofthreesections.Oneofthemisprovidedathospital,thenseamlesscareatthetimeofdischargefromhospitalandthelastintheambulatorysetting.4)药学服务对患者的健康相关生活质量有明显益处和积极影响,在医院和社区进行药学服务是可行的。Pharmaceuticalcarehasaclearbenefitandpositiveimpactonpatient’sHRQoL,whichisfeasibleinthehospitalandinthecommunitysetting.5)研究结果说明没有接受强化药学服务的患者,生活质量下降的风险更高。TheresultofthestudydemonstratesthatpatientswhodonotreceiveintensifiedPChaveahigherchanceofdeterioratingtheirqualityoflife.
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